Pathological and hemodynamic study in a new model of femoral head necrosis following traumatic dislocation

The blood of the femoral head is thought to be supplied by vessels originating from the medial and lateral circumflex femoral arteries and via the marrow cavity of the neck. Therefore, it is difficult to induce osteonecrosis of the femoral head when the marrow cavity of the neck is preserved. In the present study, we established a new model of femoral head necrosis by dislocating the hip joint and ligating the medial and lateral circumflex femoral arteries and veins. Measurement of femoral head blood flow revealed that a marked decrease to 14.7% of the control value was achieved by both hip dislocation and ligation of blood vessels. Pathologic examination showed no necrosis with either dislocation or ligation alone, whereas at 2 and 4 weeks 80% of the animals subjected to both procedures showed widespread necrosis. These pathologic findings considered in the light of results of the blood flow measurements suggest that a decrease in femoral head blood flow below 20% of the control value is needed to cause osteonecrosis. In addition, magnetic resonance images (MRI) of the model were evaluated in the combined dislocation and ligation group at 4 weeks (n = 5). Changes on MRI were seen in 3 of 5 dogs. The necrotic changes of the femoral head are thought to be detectable on MRI within 4 weeks after ischemia without enhancement.     

股骨颈骨折后选择性血管造影评价股骨头血液循环

目的 探讨选择性血管造影检查对评价股骨颈骨折后早期股骨头血液循环损伤及影响因素的价值。方法采用选择性旋股动脉及支持带动脉造影(DSA)，对9例2～23天内单侧股骨颈骨折患者血管损伤和血液循环改变进行评价。结果髋关节囊内出血2例，骨内出血4例，下、后支持带动脉损伤和血管移位各3例。患髋牵引时，除外下支持带动脉，其他支持带动脉无显影或仅显示起始部主干，相应股骨头颈部几无灌注成像，静脉显影延迟；髋关节维持伸直内旋位或囊内注入生理盐水后造影，所有支持带动脉无明确显影或仅显示其主干，股骨头颈部无灌注、染色，静脉显影延迟。结论选择性旋股内、外侧动脉DSA技术是一项准确评价股骨颈骨折后股骨头血液循环损伤及影响因素的微创性检查方法；股骨头血液循环受髋关节体位、囊内压和牵引等因素影响；牵引可导致或加重股骨颈骨折后股骨头缺血。     

Imaging the vascularisation of the femoral head by CT angiography

The femoral head receives its blood supply primarily from the medial femoral circumflex artery, with its deep branch being the most important. In a previous study, we performed classical anatomical dissections of 16 hips. We have extended our investigation with a radiological study, in which we aimed to visualise the arteries supplying the femoral head in healthy individuals. We analysed 55 CT angiographic images of the hip. Using 64-row CT angiography, we identified three main arteries supplying the femoral head: the deep branch of the medial femoral circumflex artery and the posterior inferior nutrient artery originating from the medial femoral circumflex artery, and the piriformis branch of the inferior gluteal artery. CT angiography is a good method for visualisation of the arteries supplying the femoral head. The current radiological studies will provide information for further investigation of vascularity after traumatic dislocation of the hip, using CT angiography.     

螺旋CT评价股骨颈骨折后股骨头血运的临床研究

目的探讨应用64排螺旋CT薄层增强扫描技术,观察股骨颈骨折后股骨头血液循环的变化,从而为预测股骨颈骨折后股骨头缺血性坏死提供影像学依据。方法选择2007年9月至2009年12月收治的30例股骨颈骨折患者。术前行双侧髋关节64排螺旋CT薄层增强扫描,健侧髋关节设为自身对照组。观察旋股内侧动脉、旋股外侧动脉、支持带动脉,测量双侧上述血管的管径和长度,计算比较血管容积。结果 GardenⅢ型股骨颈骨折患侧旋股内侧动脉、旋股外侧动脉以及头下型、基底型股骨颈骨折患侧旋股外侧动脉血管容积较健侧明显降低,差异具有统计学意义（GardenⅢ型旋股内侧动脉t=-2.379,P〈0.05;GardenⅢ型旋股外侧动脉t=-3.052,P〈0.05;头下型旋股外侧动脉t=-2.578,P〈0.05;基底型旋股外侧动脉t=-7.908,P〈0.05）。GardenⅠ型、GardenⅡ型以及经颈型骨折双侧血管容积比较,差异无统计学意义。GardenⅠ型、GardenⅡ型、GardenⅢ型股骨颈骨折3组间对比,各组患侧血管容积差异无统计学意义。头下型、经颈型、基底型股骨颈骨折3组间对比,各组患侧血管容积之间差异无统计学意义。支持带动脉因CT分辨率不足未能完全显示。结论股骨颈骨折可改变旋股内侧动脉和旋股外侧动脉血管容积,从而影响股骨头的血液循环状态,是股骨颈骨折后发生股骨头缺血坏死的病理基础之一。64排螺旋CT薄层增强扫描技术是一种直接、实时、无创的观察股骨头血液循环的方法,对评价股骨头血运,预测股骨颈骨折预后及选择治疗方案有一定的参考价值。由于CT分辨率不足,不能清晰显示及测量支持带动脉的血管容积,使其临床应用价值受到一定的局限。     

Reversed flow lateral circumflex femoral vessels as recipients for free fibular grafting in treatment of femoral head osteonecrosis

Free fibular bone grafting is an effective treatment for early osteonecrosis of the femoral head in young patients. However, recipient vessels are often small rendering microvascular anastomosis difficult. We have developed a novel technique using retrograde flow through the branches of the lateral circumflex femoral artery to use the proximal end of the artery as the recipient vessel. A vessel diameter of up to 5 mm is obtained providing a good match with the peroneal vessels. We used this technique to perform vascularized bone grafting of the femoral head in 10 patients with Ficat grade 2 and 3 osteonecrosis. Pulsatile retrograde flow from the lateral circumflex femoral artery was observed in each case. Retrospective review gave a median follow up of 52 months (range 17–99). Symptoms improved in all 10 cases. There was no radiological deterioration over the period of follow‐up in eight cases. One patient underwent conversion to a total hip replacement 24 months after surgery. These results compare favorably with other studies. The lateral circumflex femoral artery turnover technique is a reliable and useful technique in vascularized bone grafting of the femoral head. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc. Microsurgery, 2010.     

Der gefäßgestielte Arteria-glutea-superior-Beckenspan—ein neues Konzept zur Revaskularisierung der Hüftnekrose des Erwachsenen

The development and introduction of microsurgical technique has made possible completely new concept of revascularisation surgery in femoral head necrosis. The bone graft described in this presentation is a pedicled one from the lateral ilium. In five femoral head necrosis a pedicled corticocancellous pelvic graft, supplied by the deep branch of the superior gluteal artery, was transplanted in the femoral head. In all cases it was possible to lift out the pelvic graft from the same side as the affected hip joint. Contrary to the medial iliac bone graft (deep circumflex iliac artery) the lateral iliac bone graft (deep branch of the superior gluteal artery) is inserted into the femoral head dorsally. Preoperatively and postoperatively performed selective angiographies are necessary and presented. In all cases an unimpeded perfusion could be shown three months postoperatively. Advantages and indications of the pedicled bone graft are discussed.     

The surgical anatomy of the blood supply to the femoral head: description of the anastomosis between the medial femoral circumflex and inferior gluteal arteries at the hip

The inferior gluteal artery is described in standard anatomy textbooks as contributing to the blood supply of the hip through an anastomosis with the medial femoral circumflex artery. The site(s) of the anastomosis has not been described previously. We undertook an injection study to define the anastomotic connections between these two arteries and to determine whether the inferior gluteal artery could supply the lateral epiphyseal arteries alone. From eight fresh-frozen cadaver pelvic specimens we were able to inject the vessels in 14 hips with latex moulding compound through either the medial femoral circumflex artery or the inferior gluteal artery. Injected vessels around the hip were then carefully exposed and documented photographically. In seven of the eight specimens a clear anastomosis was shown between the two arteries adjacent to the tendon of obturator externus. The terminal vessel arising from this anastomosis was noted to pass directly beneath the posterior capsule of the hip before ascending the superior aspect of the femoral neck and terminating in the lateral epiphyseal vessels. At no point was the terminal vessel found between the capsule and the conjoined tendon. The medial femoral circumflex artery receives a direct supply from the inferior gluteal artery immediately before passing beneath the capsule of the hip. Detailed knowledge of this anatomy may help to explain the development of avascular necrosis after hip trauma, as well as to allow additional safe surgical exposure of the femoral neck and head.     

Acute effect of traction, compression, and hip joint tamponade on blood flow of the femoral head: an experimental model.

Blood flow rates of the canine femoral head were experimentally determined during traction, compression, and hip joint tamponade using the hydrogen washout technique. In puppies, blood flow rate of the femoral head was significantly decreased with either traction or compression applied at one half body weight. Either maneuver, when combined with hip joint tamponade, reduced blood flow rate of the femoral head an average of more than 70% as compared with the initial control rate. In adult dogs, combinations of either traction or compression, at one-half body weight, with hip joint tamponade did not significantly decrease blood flow rate of the femoral head as compared with control values. Perfusion defect of blue silicone could be observed only in puppies around the hip during combinations of traction or compression with hip joint tamponade and involved the posterior superior capital branches of the medial circumflex artery and the arteries in the ligamentum teres. These experimental data may have important implications for the pathogenesis of iatrogenic avascular necrosis in the treatment of congenitally dislocated hip, Legg-Perthes disease, and avascular necrosis following nondisplaced femoral neck fracture.     

Anatomy of the medial femoral circumflex artery and its surgical implications

The primary source for the blood supply of the head of the femur is the deep branch of the medial femoral circumflex artery (MFCA). In posterior approaches to the hip and pelvis the short external rotators are often divided. This can damage the deep branch and interfere with perfusion of the head. We describe the anatomy of the MFCA and its branches based on dissections of 24 cadaver hips after injection of neoprene-latex into the femoral or internal iliac arteries. The course of the deep branch of the MFCA was constant in its extracapsular segment. In all cases there was a trochanteric branch at the proximal border of quadratus femoris spreading on to the lateral aspect of the greater trochanter. This branch marks the level of the tendon of obturator externus, which is crossed posteriorly by the deep branch of the MFCA. As the deep branch travels superiorly, it crosses anterior to the conjoint tendon of gemellus inferior, obturator internus and gemellus superior. It then perforates the joint capsule at the level of gemellus superior. In its intracapsular segment it runs along the posterosuperior aspect of the neck of the femur dividing into two to four subsynovial retinacular vessels. We demonstrated that obturator externus protected the deep branch of the MFCA from being disrupted or stretched during dislocation of the hip in any direction after serial release of all other soft-tissue attachments of the proximal femur, including a complete circumferential capsulotomy. Precise knowledge of the extracapsular anatomy of the MFCA and its surrounding structures will help to avoid iatrogenic avascular necrosis of the head of the femur in reconstructive surgery of the hip and fixation of acetabular fractures through the posterior approach.     

不断股直肌起点髋前侧入路行吻合血管游离腓骨治疗股骨头坏死的解剖学研究

目的：探讨在保持股直肌完整前提下,经髋关节前侧手术入路行股骨头坏死病灶清除吻合血管游离腓骨移植术治疗股骨头坏死的可行性。方法自2012年06月至2013年06月,选择本组采用常规髋关节前侧入路行股骨头坏死病灶清除吻合血管游离腓骨移植术治疗股骨头坏死病例53例共67髋。男38例（49髋）,女15例（18髋）;年龄22～57岁,平均37.4岁;身高150～192 cm,平均171.9 cm;体重45～92 kg,平均70.0 kg;身高体重指数（ BMI）值为17.1～30.7,平均23.6。在显露股直肌后,观察记录支配股直肌神经的走行和入肌点位置、旋股外侧动、静脉升支的走行和距离股直肌起点距离以及股直肌与切口和髋关节的相对位置关系。结果（1）支配股直肌的神经由股神经分支发出,走行于缝匠肌深面,自内上方走向外下方,在入股直肌前分为两支神经支,外上支于股直肌内侧深面入肌,入肌点距髂前下棘下方（7.07＆#177;1.14） cm;内下支切口内未见。将股直肌向外侧牵开可见股直肌外上支张力增大,向内拉开则张力减小。（2）旋股外侧动、静脉升支发自股深动脉,经缝匠肌及股直肌深面、髂腰肌前面向外上走行至股中间肌前侧,旋股外侧动、静脉升支血管束中点距髂前下棘下方（6.16＆#177;0.52）cm。所有病例向内拉开股直肌均可很好地显露旋股外侧动、静脉其分支血管束全长。（3）股直肌直头起于髂前下棘,约1/4～1/5肌纤维位于切口线外侧,其余部分位于切口线内侧。股直肌肌腹遮挡髋关节头颈交界处内侧约1/3～1/2部分。结论（1）沿股直肌外侧间隙将股直肌向内侧牵开暴露髋关节,可保护位于内侧的血管神经束,为手术安全间隙。（2）股直肌对于髋关节遮挡较少,大部分肌纤维位于髋关节内侧,向内拉开股直肌可完全显露旋股外侧动、静脉升支及髋关节,故不?     

旋股外侧动脉内侧降支移植修复掌浅弓缺损

目的探讨应用旋股外侧动脉内侧降支移植修复掌浅弓缺损的可行性。方法通过对旋股外侧动脉内侧降支的应用解剖学研究,1999年5月-2004年2月,对8例手掌严重损伤致掌浅弓缺损的患者,切取上述血管移植重建掌浅动脉弓,血管切取长度为9～15cm。结果术后患者手指及移植皮瓣全部成活,手功能恢复满意,血管供区血液循环无影响,肌力正常。结论旋股外侧动脉内侧降支,与掌浅弓有十分相似的解剖学结构,且解剖位置恒定,切取方便。该血管最佳适应证是修复掌浅弓缺损和同时伴有皮肤软组织缺损。     

带旋股外侧动脉升支肌骨瓣治疗髋部病损

带旋股外侧动脉升支阔筋膜张肌髂骨与骨膜瓣移位治疗髋部病损11例。由于手术基本不游离血管束,减少了对血管的刺激;骨瓣植入再加入骨膜包绕股骨颈,改善了局部的血循环及股骨头血运,有利于缺损修复,防止了股骨头缺血性坏死的发生。     

旋髂深血管蒂骨膜瓣与旋股外血管蒂阔筋膜张肌髂骨瓣复合移植治疗成人股骨头缺血性坏死

目的观察旋髂深血管蒂骨膜瓣与旋股外侧血管蒂阔筋膜张肌髂骨瓣复合移植治疗成人股骨头缺血性坏死的疗效。方法采用旋髂深血管蒂骨膜瓣与旋股外侧血管蒂阔筋膜张肌髂骨瓣复合移植至4例坏死塌陷的股骨头内重建病变的股骨头。结果按髋关节功能Harris评分标准进行评价，对4例进行2-3年随访，优3例，良1例。结论本复合骨瓣对重建股骨头坏死的血运是可靠的方法。     

基于X线片建立股骨头坏死新分型体系的临床意义

目的观察围塌陷期股骨头坏死在影像学上的表现形式,进行分类总结。 方法选择在广州中医药大学第一附属医院确诊为围塌陷期股骨头坏死且有完整影像资料的患者,排除髋部有先天畸形或有影响髋关节功能的疾病等。在双侧髋关节标准正位片上观察股骨头坏死硬化带的形态及其与髋臼"眉弓"的对应关系,在双侧髋关节蛙式侧位片上观察股骨头坏死硬化带的形态及其与股骨头前外侧柱的对应关系,根据不同表现形式进行分类。 结果共纳入266例435髋,在双侧髋关节标准正位片上观察到6种股骨头坏死硬化带的表现形式,分别是A型(硬化带边缘在眉弓内侧1/3以内)19(4.4%),B型(硬化带边缘在"眉弓"中间1/3内)89髋(20.1%),C1型(硬化带边缘在眉弓外侧1/3内)155髋(35.6%),C2型(硬化带边缘超过髋臼外侧缘)87髋(20.0%),D1型(硬化带呈环形,位于股骨头中心)47髋(10.8%),D2型(硬化带呈环形,位于股骨头负重区软骨下骨板)38髋(8.7%)。在双侧髋关节蛙式侧位片上观察到5种股骨头坏死硬化带的表现形式,分别是1型(硬化带边缘位于股骨头后内侧柱或中央柱)3髋(0.7%),2型(硬化带边缘位于股骨头后内侧柱或中央柱,深部累及前外侧柱)51髋(11.7%),3型(硬化带边缘位于股骨头前外侧柱)316髋(72.6%),4型(硬化带呈环形,位于股骨头中心)32髋(7.4%),5型(硬化带呈环形,位于股骨头负重区软骨下骨板)33髋(7.6%)。总结出435髋共有19种匹配结果,结合纳入髋数的塌陷率,初步确定蛙位3型匹配正位B、C1、C2和D2时,需要采取外科干预。 结论根据股骨头坏死硬化带在影像学上的表现形式建立正位和蛙式侧位分型,充分考虑股骨头外侧柱和前外侧柱的坏死累及情况,更能反映疾病的本质,为临床诊断、治疗和预后判断提供参考。     

Selective medical circumflex femoral arteriography in idiopathic ischemic necrosis of the femoral head in adults (author's transl)]

It is generally accepted that the medial circumflex femoral artery nourishes about two-thirds to four-fifths of the femoral head. In order to study the arteries in the idiopathic ischemic necrosis of the femoral head in adults, selective medial circumflex femoral arteriography was performed on 24 affected hips and 14 normal hips. This method enabled the better visualization of the medial circumflex femoral arterial system than the conventional femoral or internal iliac arteriography. The affected hips showed similar vascular patterns compared to normal hips. Anastomoses between the ascending branch or the medial circumflex femoral artery and the gluteal arteries, however, were rarely found in the affected hips. In the affected hips, various pathologic changes were demonstrated angiographically mainly in the portion of the ascending branch and the retinacular arteries. The existence of some degree of vascular insufficiency of the femoral head was assumed. However, complete occlusion of the medial circumflex femoral artery and its main branches that might cause head necrosis was seldom observed.     

Effect of acetabular cup position and orientation in cemented total hip arthroplasty.

Long-term clinical results of total hip arthroplasty for patients with developmental acetabular dysplasia of the hip have been reported, but placement of the femoral head center or cup orientation remains controversial, especially with a severe anterolateral shallow acetabulum or dislocated femoral head. Results of 41 Müller and 34 Harris Design 2 cemented total hip arthroplasties were evaluated for developmental dysplasia of the hip. The femoral head center and acetabular cup inclination angle were measured from the interteardrop line. Linear wear and wear direction were measured using the Livermore technique. The best position of the femoral head center was less than 35 mm vertically from the interteardrop line and 25 mm laterally from the teardrop. Femoral head center analysis showed that hips with the cup in a lateral and superior cup position all were revised, but a superior and medial position combined with a cup inclination angle less than 40 degrees did not require revision. Hips with a cup inclination angle more than 45 degrees had superior and lateral penetration patterns of the polyethylene. However, hips with an inclination angle less than 35 degrees and medial placement had medial head penetration patterns. With these all-polyethylene monolithic cemented cups, regardless of the femoral head diameter or cup thickness, better long-term results occurred with a cup inclination angle of 40 degrees or less and medial position of the cup.     

Anatomy of the medial femoral circumflex artery with respect to the vascularity of the femoral head

We performed a series of 16 anatomical dissections on Caucasian cadaver material to determine the surgical anatomy of the medial femoral circumflex artery (MFCA) and its anastomoses. These confirmed that the femoral head receives its blood supply primarily from the MFCA via a group of posterior superior nutrient arteries and the posterior inferior nutrient artery. In terms of anastomoses that may also contribute to the blood supply, the anastomosis with the inferior gluteal artery, via the piriformis branch, is the most important. These dissections provide a base of knowledge for further radiological studies on the vascularity of the normal femoral head and its vascularity after dislocation of the hip.     

以旋股外侧动脉降支供血的游离组织瓣修复小腿软组织缺损

目的 探讨以旋股外侧动脉降支逆行转位供血的游离组织瓣修复严重的小腿创伤伴软组织缺损的临床效果.方法 对小腿软组织损伤严重且无可携带游离组织瓣的血管,以旋股外侧动脉降支的远端为蒂,将其近端与游离组织瓣的动脉吻接,大隐静脉或小隐静脉与游离组织瓣的动脉伴行静脉吻接,2004年10月至2009年12月,采用该方法修复小腿软组织缺损36例,其中携带背阔肌肌皮瓣15例,股前外侧皮瓣12例,胸脐皮瓣9例.结果 36例游离皮瓣(肌皮瓣)均顺利成活,无一例出现血管危象,随访6个月至2.5年,皮瓣外形及功能恢复均较满意.结论 在小腿无可供吻合的血管时,应用以旋股外侧动脉降支逆行转位供血的游离组织瓣修复小腿软组织缺损,是一种切实有效的手术方法.

Abstract：

Objective To investigate the therapeutic effect of free tissue flap anastomosed with reverse descendant branch of lateral femoral circumflex artery for severe soft tissue defect at leg. Methods The severe soft tissue defect at leg, without any vessels for anastomosis of free tissue flap, was reconstructed with free tissue flap, which was anastomosed with proximal end of descendant branch of lateral femoral circumflex artery and great saphenous vein. From Oct. 2004 to Dec. 2009, 36 cases were treated with 15 cases of latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flaps, 12 cases of anterolateral femoral flaps,and 9 cases of thoracoumbilicus flaps. Results All the 36 free flaps survived completely. The patients were followed up for 6 months to 2. 5 years with good cosmetic results. Conclusions It is effective and practical to repair the severe soft tissue defects at legs with the reverse descendant branch of lateral femoral circumflex artery to carry the free flaps.     

Anatomic considerations for the choice of surgical approach for hip resurfacing arthroplasty

A number of surgical exposures have been advocated over the past 20 years by the pioneers of resurfacing hip arthroplasty and include the anterior, anterolateral, lateral, and posterolateral approaches. Not all of these approaches, however, appear to provide adequate exposure while respecting the local biology that seems to be imperative for the procedure. Based on an anatomic study, the most "bio-logical" surgical approach for hip resurfacing arthroplasty appears to be through a lateral or posterolateral approach using a digastric trochanteric osteotomy combined with an anterior hip dislocation. These exposures avoid injury to the medial femoral circumflex artery supplying the femoral head and allow access and treatment to the commonly observed hip pathologies that are frequently located anteriorly.     

False aneurysms of the circumflex arteries of the femur as a complication of hip arthroplasty: description of one case.

The authors report one case of false aneurysms of the medial and lateral circumflex arteries of the femur in a patient submitted to cementless An.C.A. model hip arthroplasty. Clinical symptoms, characterized by fatigue, painful swelling in the proximal third of the thigh, in the anterolateral region, began three months after surgery. After an emergency arteriography was obtained, the presence of an aneurysm of the medial circumflex artery, and of the lateral circumflex artery one month later, was observed.