Cytotoxicity of combinations of arsenicals on rat urinary bladder urothelial cells in vitro

Based on epidemiological data, chronic exposure to high levels of inorganic arsenic in the drinking water is carcinogenic to the urinary bladder of humans. The highly reactive trivalent organic arsenicals dimethylarsinous acid (DMA(III)) and monomethylarsonous acid (MMA(III)) are formed during the metabolism of inorganic arsenic in vivo in addition to the corresponding mono-, di- and trimethylated pentavalent arsenicals. The objective of this study was to determine if combining arsenicals was additive or synergistic toward inducing cytotoxicity in a rat urothelial cell line. The MYP3 cell line, an immortalized but not transformed rat urinary bladder epithelial cell line, was seeded into appropriate culture wells. Treatment with the arsenicals was begun 24 h after seeding and continued for 3 days. Combinations of arsenicals used were DMA(III) with arsenite, dimethylarsinic acid (DMA(V)) or trimethylarsine oxide (TMAO). Combinations of concentrations used were the LC50, one-quarter or one-half the LC50 of one arsenical with one-half or one-quarter the LC50 of the other arsenical. To determine if MYP3 cells metabolize arsenicals, cells were treated with arsenate, arsenite and MMA(V) as described above and the medium was analyzed by HPLC-ICPMS to determine species and quantity of arsenicals present. When cells were treated with one-quarter or one-half the LC50 concentration of both arsenicals, the cytotoxicity was approximately the same as when cells were treated with half the LC50 concentration or the LC50 concentration, respectively, of either arsenical. Treatment with one-quarter the LC50 concentration of one arsenical plus the LC50 concentration of a second arsenical had similar cytotoxicity as treatment with the LC50 concentration of either of the arsenicals. Quantitation and speciation of arsenicals in the cell culture medium showed that MYP3 cells have some reductase activity but the cells do not methylate arsenicals. The effect on the cytotoxicity of arsenicals in combination was additive rather than synergistic toward a rat urothelial cell line.     

Formation of dimethylthioarsenicals in red blood cells

The bladder and skin are the primary targets for arsenic-induced carcinogenicity in mammals. Thioarsenicals dimethylmonothioarsinic (DMMTA(V)) and dimethyldithioarsinic (DMDTA(V)) acids are common urinary metabolites, the former being much more toxic than non-thiolated dimethylarsinic acid (DMA(V)) and comparable to dimethylarsinous acid (DMAIII) in epidermoid cells, suggesting that the metabolic production of thioarsenicals may be a risk factor for the development of cancer in these organs. To reveal their production sites (tissues/body fluids), we examined the uptake and transformation of the four dimethylated arsenicals by incubation with rat and human red blood cells (RBCs). Although DMA(V) and DMDTA(V) were not taken up by either type of RBCs, DMAIII and DMMTA(V) were taken up by both (more efficiently by rat ones), though DMMTA(V) was taken up slowly, and then the arsenic transformed into DMDTA(V) was excreted from both types of animal RBCs. On the other hand, although DMA(III) taken up rapidly by rat RBCs was retained in the RBCs, that taken up by human RBCs was immediately transformed into DMMTA(V) and then excreted into the incubation medium without being retained in the RBCs. In a separate experiment, arsenic remaining in primary rat hepatocytes after incubation with 1.5 microM DMAIII was recovered from the incubation medium in the forms of DMA(V) and DMMTA(V) in the presence of human RBCs, but not in the presence of rat RBCs (in which the arsenic was bound to hemoglobin). Thus, DMMTA(V) was detected in the medium only in the presence of human RBCs and increased with incubation time. It was proposed that arsenic is excreted from hepatocytes into the bloodstream in the form of DMAIII and then taken up by RBCs in humans, where it is transformed into DMMTA(V) and then excreted again into the bloodstream.     

Understanding arsenic carcinogenicity by the use of animal models

Although numerous epidemiological studies have indicated that human arsenic exposure is associated with increased incidences of bladder, liver, skin, and lung cancers, limited attempts have been made to understand mechanisms of carcinogenicity using animal models. Dimethylarsinic acid (DMA), an organic arsenic compound, is a major metabolite of ingested inorganic arsenics in mammals. Recent in vitro studies have proven DMA to be a potent clastogenic agent, capable of inducing DNA damage including double strand breaks and cross-link formation. In our attempts to clarify DMA carcinogenicity, we have recently shown carcinogenic effects of DMA and its related metabolites using various experimental protocols in rats and mice: (1) a multi-organ promotion bioassay in rats; (2) a two-stage promotion bioassay by DMA of rat urinary bladder and liver carcinogenesis; (3) a 2-year carcinogenicity test of DMA in rats; (4) studies on the effects of DMA on lung carcinogenesis in rats; (5) promotion of skin carcinogenesis by DMA in keratin (K6)/ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) transgenic mice; (6) carcinogenicity of DMA in p53(+/-) knockout and Mmh/8-OXOG-DNA glycolase (OGG1) mutant mice; (7) promoting effects of DMA and related organic arsenicals in rat liver; (8) promoting effects of DMA and related organic arsenicals in a rat multi-organ carcinogenesis test; and (9) 2-year carcinogenicity tests of monomethylarsonic acid (MMA) and trimethylarsine oxide (TMAO) in rats. The results revealed that the adverse effects of arsenic occurred either by promoting and initiating carcinogenesis. These data, as covered in the present review, suggest that several mechanisms may be involved in arsenic carcinogenesis.     

A comparative study of the sub-chronic toxic effects of three organic arsenical compounds on the urothelium in F344 rats; gender-based differences in response

Epidemiological studies indicated that human arsenic exposure can induce urinary bladder cancer. Methylation of inorganic arsenic can generate more reactive and toxic organic arsenical species. In this regard, it was recently reported that the methylated arsenical metabolite, dimethylarsinic acid [DMA(V)], induced urinary bladder tumors in rats. However, other methylated metabolites, like monomethylarsonic acid [MMA(V)] and trimethylarsine oxide (TMAO) were not carcinogenic to the urinary bladder. In order to compare the early effects of DMA(V), MMA(V), and TMAO on the urinary bladder transitional cell epithelium at the scanning electron microscope (SEM) level, we investigated the sub-chronic (13 weeks) toxicological effects of MMA(V) (187 ppm), DMA(V) (184 ppm), TMAO (182 ppm) given in the drinking water to male and female F344 rats with a focus on the urinary bladder in this study. Obvious pathological changes, including ropy microridges, pitting, increased separation of epithelial cells, exfoliation, and necrosis, were found in the urinary bladders of both sexes, but particularly in females receiving carcinogenic doses of DMA(V). Urine arsenical metabolic differences were found between males and females, with levels of MMA(III), a potential genotoxic form, higher in females treated with DMA(V) than in males. Thus, this study provides clear evidence that DMA(V) is more toxic to the female urinary bladder, in accord with sensitivity to carcinogenesis. Important gender-related metabolic differences including enhanced presentation of MMA(III) to the urothelial cells might possibly account for heightened sensitivity in females. However, the potential carcinogenic effects of MMA(III) need to be further elucidated.     

Monomethylarsonic acid reductase and monomethylarsonous acid in hamster tissue

The formation of monomethylarsonous acid (MMA(III)) by tissue homogenates of brain, bladder, spleen, liver, lung, heart, skin, kidney, or testis of male Golden Syrian hamsters was assessed using [(14)C]monomethylarsonic acid (MMA(V)) as the substrate for MMA(V) reductase. The mean +/- SEM of MMA(V) reductase specific activities (nanomoles of MMA(III) per milligram of protein per hour) were as follows: brain, 91.4 +/- 3.0; bladder, 61.8 +/- 3.7; spleen, 30.2 +/- 5.4; liver, 29.8 +/- 1.4; lung, 21.5 +/- 0.8; heart, 19.4 +/- 1.5; skin, 14.7 +/- 1.6; kidney, 10.6 +/- 0.4; and testis, 9.8 +/- 0.6. The concentrations of MMA(III) in male Golden Syrian hamster livers were determined 15 h after administration of a single intraperitoneal dose of 145 microCi of [(73)As]arsenate (2 mg of As/kg of body weight). Trivalent arsenic species (arsenite, MMA(III), and dimethylarsinous acid, DMA(III)) were extracted from liver homogenates using carbon tetrachloride (CCl(4)) and 20 mM diethylammonium salt of diethyldithiocarbamic acid (DDDC). Pentavalent arsenicals (arsenate, MMA(V), and dimethylarsinic acid, DMA(V)) remained in the aqueous phase. The organic and the aqueous phases then were analyzed by HPLC. Metabolites of inorganic arsenate present in hamster liver after 15 h were observed in the following concentrations (nanograms per gram of liver +/- SEM): MMA(III), 38.5 +/- 2.9; DMA(III), 49.9 +/- 10.2; arsenite, 35.5 +/- 3.0; arsenate, 118.2 +/- 8.7; MMA(V), 31.4 +/- 2.8; and DMA(V), 83.5 +/- 6.7. This first-time identification of MMA(III) and DMA(III) in liver after arsenate exposure indicates that the significance of arsenic species in mammalian tissue needs to be re-examined and re-evaluated with respect to their role in the toxicity and carcinogenicity of inorganic arsenic.     

The accumulation and toxicity of methylated arsenicals in endothelial cells: important roles of thiol compounds

Excess intake of arsenic is known to cause vascular diseases as well as skin lesions and cancer in humans. Recent reports suggest that trivalent methylated arsenicals, which are intermediate metabolites in the methylation process of inorganic arsenic, are responsible for the toxicity and carcinogenicity of environmental arsenic. We investigated acute toxicity and accumulation of monomethylarsonic acid (MMA(V)), dimethylarsinic acid (DMA(V)), trimethylarsine oxide (TMAO), and monomethylarsonous acid diglutathione (MMA(III) (GS)(2)) in rat heart microvessel endothelial (RHMVE) cells. MMA(V) (LC(50) = 36.6 mM) and DMA(V) (LC(50) = 2.54 mM) were less toxic than inorganic arsenicals (cf. LC(50) values for inorganic arsenite (iAs(III)), and inorganic arsenate (iAs(V)) was reported to be 36 and 220 microM, respectively, in RHMVE cells. TMAO was essentially not toxic. However, MMA(III) (GS)(2) was highly toxic (LC(50) = 4.1 microM). The order of cellular arsenic accumulation of those four organic arsenic compounds was MMA(III) (GS)(2) > MMA(V) > DMA(V) > TMAO. MMA(III) (GS)(2) was efficiently taken up by the cells and cellular arsenic content increased with the concentration of MMA(III) (GS)(2) in culture medium. N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC) reduced cellular arsenic content in DMA(V)-exposed cells and also decreased the cytotoxicity of DMA(V), whereas it changed neither cellular arsenic content nor the viability in MMA(V)-exposed cells. mRNA levels of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) were decreased by NAC in DMA(V)-exposed, but MMA(V)-exposed cells. Buthionine sulfoximine (BSO), a cellular glutathione (GSH) depleting agent, enhanced the cytotoxicity of MMA(V). However, BSO reduced, rather than enhanced, the cytotoxicity of DMA(V). These results suggest that intracellular GSH modulated the toxic effects of arsenic in opposite ways for MMA(V) and DMA(V). Even though intracellular GSH decreased the cytotoxicity of MMA(V), extracellularly added GSH enhanced the cytotoxicity of MMA(V). The use of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometric analyses suggested that a small amount of MMA(V) was converted to MMA(III) (GS)(2) in the presence of GSH. These results suggest that MMA(III) (GS)(2) is highly toxic compared to other arsenic compounds because of faster accumulation of this species by cells, in addition to having the toxic nature of methylated trivalent organic arsenics.     

Tissue dosimetry, metabolism and excretion of pentavalent and trivalent dimethylated arsenic in mice after oral administration

Dimethylarsinic acid (DMA(V)) is a rat bladder carcinogen and the major urinary metabolite of administered inorganic arsenic in most mammals. This study examined the disposition of pentavalent and trivalent dimethylated arsenic in mice after acute oral administration. Adult female mice were administered [(14)C]-DMA(V) (0.6 or 60 mg As/kg) and sacrificed serially over 24 h. Tissues and excreta were collected for analysis of radioactivity. Other mice were administered unlabeled DMA(V) (0.6 or 60 mg As/kg) or dimethylarsinous acid (DMA(III)) (0.6 mg As/kg) and sacrificed at 2 or 24 h. Tissues (2 h) and urine (24 h) were collected and analyzed for arsenicals. Absorption, distribution and excretion of [(14)C]-DMA(V) were rapid, as radioactivity was detected in tissues and urine at 0.25 h. For low dose DMA(V) mice, there was a greater fractional absorption of DMA(V) and significantly greater tissue concentrations of radioactivity at several time points. Radioactivity distributed greatest to the liver (1-2% of dose) and declined to less than 0.05% in all tissues examined at 24 h. Urinary excretion of radioactivity was significantly greater in the 0.6 mg As/kg DMA(V) group. Conversely, fecal excretion of radioactivity was significantly greater in the high dose group. Urinary metabolites of DMA(V) included DMA(III), trimethylarsine oxide (TMAO), dimethylthioarsinic acid and trimethylarsine sulfide. Urinary metabolites of DMA(III) included TMAO, dimethylthioarsinic acid and trimethylarsine sulfide. DMA(V) was also excreted by DMA(III)-treated mice, showing its sensitivity to oxidation. TMAO was detected in tissues of the high dose DMA(V) group. The low acute toxicity of DMA(V) in the mouse appears to be due in part to its minimal retention and rapid elimination.     

Possible role of dimethylarsinous acid in dimethylarsinic acid-induced urothelial toxicity and regeneration in the rat

Dimethylarsinic acid (DMA(V)) is carcinogenic to the rat urinary bladder when administered at high doses in the diet or drinking water. At a dietary dose of 100 ppm (microg/g), it produces cytotoxicity within 6 h and increased proliferation (hyperplasia) by 7 days of administration. We hypothesize that formation of the reactive organic intermediate dimethylarsinous acid (DMA(III)) is involved in the induction of the cytotoxicity. To evaluate the possibility that DMA(V) administration produces urothelial toxicity and regeneration by the formation of trivalent arsenicals, 2,3-dimercaptopropane-1-sulfonic acid (DMPS, 5600 ppm), a chelator of trivalent arsenicals, was co-administered with DMA(V) (100 ppm) for 2 weeks to groups of female Fischer F344 rats. Based on light and scanning electron microscopy, and bromodeoxyuridine labeling index, DMA(V) produced cytotoxicity and regenerative hyperplasia of the urothelium which was inhibited by co-administration with DMPS. The major forms of arsenic in the 24-h urine of rats administered DMA(V) were high concentrations of DMA(V) (66.4 +/- 2.7 microM) itself and the pentavalent organic arsenical trimethylarsine oxide (TMAO) (73.2 +/- 9.5 microM). Co-administration with DMPS led to an increase in DMA(V) (507 +/- 31 microM) with a decrease in TMAO (2.8 +/- 0.4 microM) excretion. The formation of TMAO from DMA(V) mechanistically suggests formation of the intermediate trivalent metabolite, DMA(III). In a second experiment evaluating fresh void urines collected on study days 1, 71, and 175, we detected DMA(III) in the urine of DMA(V) and DMA(V) plus DMPS-treated rats at approximately micromolar concentrations. Using rat (MYP3) and human (1T1) urothelial cells, cytotoxicity for trivalent arsenicals, sodium arsenite, monomethylarsonous acid (MMA(III)), and DMA(III) was demonstrated at 0.4-4.8 microM concentrations, whereas MMA(V), DMA(V), and TMAO were cytotoxic at millimolar concentrations. The presence of DMA(III) at micromolar concentrations in the urine of rats fed 100 ppm DMA(V) suggests that DMA(III) produced in vivo may be involved in the toxic effects in the rat urinary bladder after dietary administration of DMA(V).     

Plasma folate level, urinary arsenic methylation profiles, and urothelial carcinoma susceptibility.

To elucidate the influence of folate concentration on the association between urinary arsenic profiles and urothelial carcinoma (UC) risks in subjects without evident arsenic exposure, 177 UC cases and 488 controls were recruited between September 2002 and May 2004. Urinary arsenic species including inorganic arsenic, monomethylarsonic acid (MMA(V)) and dimethylarsinic acid (DMA(V)) were determined by employing a high performance liquid chromatography-linked hydride generator and atomic absorption spectrometry procedure. After adjustment for suspected risk factors of UC, the higher indicators of urinary total arsenic levels, percentage of inorganic arsenic, percentage of MMA(V), and primary methylation index were associated with increased risk of UC. On the other hand, the higher plasma folate levels, urinary percentage of DMA(V) and secondary methylation index were associated with decreased risk of UC. A dose-response relationship was shown between plasma folate levels or methylation indices of arsenic species and UC risk in the respective quartile strata. The plasma folate was found to interact with urinary arsenic profiles in affecting the UC risk. The results of this study may identify the susceptible subpopulations and provide insight into the carcinogenic mechanisms of arsenic even at low arsenic exposure.     

Metabolic differences between two dimethylthioarsenicals in rats

Thioarsenicals are newly found arsenic metabolites in man and animals, and also in marine organisms. Dimethylmonothioarsinic acid (DMMTA(V)) and dimethyldithioarsinic acid (DMDTA(V)) are the only two thioarsenic metabolites detected in man and/or animals. However, their toxicological and biological significance is not known yet. The present study was performed to gain an insight into the significance of DMMTA(V) and DMDTA(V) in the metabolism of arsenic. The two thioarsenicals were synthesized chemically and injected intravenously into rats at the dose of 0.5 mg As/kg body weight. The distributions of arsenic in organs/tissues and body fluids were determined at 10 min and 12 h after the injection, and arsenic in liver and kidney supernatants, urine, plasma and red blood cell (RBC) lysates was subjected to speciation analysis by HPLC-ICP MS on a gel filtration GS 220 HQ column. Although both thioarsenicals are pentavalent arsenicals, they were distributed in organs/tissues and body fluids differently from the corresponding non-thiolated pentavalent arsenicals, and also from each other. Namely, DMMTA(V) was first found in organs/tissues at 10 min, and then redistributed and retained mostly in RBCs at 12 h, as in the case of trivalent dimethylarsinous acid (DMA(III)). On the other hand, although DMDTA(V) was also found in organs/tissues at 10 min, it had been efficiently excreted in urine in its intact form at 12 h. Thus, DMMTA(V) was unexpectedly distributed in and taken up by organs/tissues in a manner similar to DMA(III) rather than DMA(V), whereas DMDTA(V) was distributed similarly to DMA(V) as expected, but was much more efficiently excreted in urine.     

Methylated arsenicals: the implications of metabolism and carcinogenicity studies in rodents to human risk assessment

Monomethylarsonic acid (MMA(V)) and dimethylarsinic acid (DMA(V)) are active ingredients in pesticidal products used mainly for weed control. MMA(V) and DMA(V) are also metabolites of inorganic arsenic, formed intracellularly, primarily in liver cells in a metabolic process of repeated reductions and oxidative methylations. Inorganic arsenic is a known human carcinogen, inducing tumors of the skin, urinary bladder, and lung. However, a good animal model has not yet been found. Although the metabolic process of inorganic arsenic appears to enhance the excretion of arsenic from the body, it also involves formation of methylated compounds of trivalent arsenic as intermediates. Trivalent arsenicals (whether inorganic or organic) are highly reactive compounds that can cause cytotoxicity and indirect genotoxicity in vitro. DMA(V) was found to be a bladder carcinogen only in rats and only when administered in the diet or drinking water at high doses. It was negative in a two-year bioassay in mice. MMA(V) was negative in 2-year bioassays in rats and mice. The mode of action for DMA(V)-induced bladder cancer in rats appears to not involve DNA reactivity, but rather involves cytotoxicity with consequent regenerative proliferation, ultimately leading to the formation of carcinoma. This critical review responds to the question of whether DMA(V)-induced bladder cancer in rats can be extrapolated to humans, based on detailed comparisons between inorganic and organic arsenicals, including their metabolism and disposition in various animal species. The further metabolism and disposition of MMA(V) and DMA(V) formed endogenously during the metabolism of inorganic arsenic is different from the metabolism and disposition of MMA(V) and DMA(V) from exogenous exposure. The trivalent arsenicals that are cytotoxic and indirectly genotoxic in vitro are hardly formed in an organism exposed to MMA(V) or DMA(V) because of poor cellular uptake and limited metabolism of the ingested compounds. Furthermore, the evidence strongly supports a nonlinear dose-response relationship for the biologic processes involved in the carcinogenicity of arsenicals. Based on an overall review of the evidence, using a margin-of-exposure approach for MMA(V) and DMA(V) risk assessment is appropriate. At anticipated environmental exposures to MMA(V) and DMA(V), there is not likely to be a carcinogenic risk to humans.     

Mitochondria are the main target organelle for trivalent monomethylarsonous acid (MMA(III))-induced cytotoxicity

Excessive generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is considered to play an important role in arsenic-induced carcinogenicity in the liver, lungs, and urinary bladder. However, little is known about the mechanism of ROS-based carcinogenicity, including where the ROS are generated, and which arsenic species are the most effective ROS inducers. In order to better understand the mechanism of arsenic toxicity, rat liver RLC-16 cells were exposed to arsenite (iAs(III)) and its intermediate metabolites [i.e., monomethylarsonous acid (MMA(III)) and dimethylarsinous acid (DMA(III))]. MMA(III) (IC(50) = 1 μM) was found to be the most toxic form, followed by DMA(III) (IC(50) = 2 μM) and iAs(III) (IC(50) = 18 μM). Following exposure to MMA(III), ROS were found to be generated primarily in the mitochondria. DMA(III) exposure resulted in ROS generation in other organelles, while no ROS generation was seen following exposures to low levels of iAs(III). This suggests the mechanisms of induction of ROS are different among the three arsenicals. The effects of iAs(III), MMA(III), and DMA(III) on activities of complexes I-IV in the electron transport chain (ETC) of rat liver submitochondrial particles and on the stimulation of ROS production in intact mitochondria were also studied. Activities of complexes II and IV were significantly inhibited by MMA(III), but only the activity of complexes II was inhibited by DMA(III). Incubation with iAs(III) had no inhibitory effects on any of the four complexes. Generation of ROS in intact mitochondria was significantly increased following incubation with MMA(III), while low levels of ROS generation were observed following incubation with DMA(III). ROS was not produced in mitochondria following exposure to iAs(III). The mechanism underlying cell death is different among As(III), MMA(III), and DMA(III), with mitochondria being one of the primary target organelles for MMA(III)-induced cytotoxicity.     

Uptake of inorganic and organic derivatives of arsenic associated with induced cytotoxic and genotoxic effects in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells

Humans are exposed to arsenic and their organic derivatives, which are widely distributed in the environment, via food, water, and to a lesser extent, via air. Following uptake, inorganic arsenic undergoes biotransformation to mono- and dimethylated metabolites. Recent findings suggest that the methylation reactions represent a toxification rather than a detoxification pathway. In the present study, the genotoxic effects and the cellular uptake of inorganic arsenic [arsenate, As(i)(V); arsenite, As(i)(III)] and the methylated arsenic species monomethylarsonic acid [MMA(V)], monomethylarsonous acid [MMA(III)], dimethylarsinic acid [DMA(V)], dimethylarsinous acid [DMA(III)], trimethylarsenic oxide [TMAO(V)] were investigated in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-9) cells. The chemicals were applied at different concentrations (0.1 microM to 10 mM) for 30 min and 1 h, respectively. Cytotoxic effects were investigated by the trypan blue extrusion test and genotoxic effects by the assessment of micronucleus (MN) induction, chromosome aberrations (CA), and sister chromatid exchanges (SCE). Intracellular arsenic concentrations were determined by ICP-MS techniques. Our results show that MMA(III) and DMA(III) induce cytotoxic and genotoxic effects to a greater extent than MMA(V) or DMA(V). Viability was significantly decreased after incubation (1 h) of the cells with > or = 1 microM As(i)(III), > or = 1 microM As(i)(V), > or = 500 microM MMA(III), > or = 100 microM MMA(V), and 500 microM DMA(V) and > or = 0.1 microM DMA(III). TMAO(V) was not cytotoxic at concentrations up to 10 mM. A significant increase of the number of MN, CA and SCE was found for DMA(III) and MMA(III). As(i)(III + V) induced CA and SCE but no MN. TMAO(V), MMA(V) and DMA(V) were not genotoxic in the concentration range tested (up to 5 mM). The nuclear division index (NDI) was not affected by any of the tested arsenic compounds after a recovery period of 14 to 35 h. When the uptake of the chemicals was measured by ICP-MS analysis, it was found that only 0.03% MMA(V) and DMA(V), and 2% MMA(III), As(i)(III) and (V) were taken up by the cells. In comparison, 10% of the DMA(III) dose was taken up. The total intracellular concentration of all arsenic compounds increased with increasing arsenic concentrations in the culture medium. Taken together, these data demonstrate that arsenic compounds in the trivalent oxidation state exhibit the strongest genotoxic effects. Trivalent organoarsenic compounds are more membrane permeable than the pentavalent species. The potency of the DNA damage decreases in the order DMA(III) > MMA(III) > As(i)(III and V) > MMA(V) > DMA(V) > TMAO(V). We postulate that the induction of genotoxic effects caused by the methylated arsenic species is primarily dependent upon their ability to penetrate cell membranes.     

地非三唑对大鼠肝细胞细胞色素P450 CYP1A1/2的诱导作用

目的 试从mRNA表达水平阐明地非三唑对鼠肝微粒体中细胞色素P450 CYP1A1/2的诱导机制。方法 给SD大鼠腹腔注射地非三唑，采用Trizol法提取大鼠肝脏RNA,用RT-PCR测定经地非三唑处理1, 2及4 d的鼠肝中细胞色素P450 CYP1A1, CYP1A2 mRNA的表达水平。结果 地非三唑处理不同时间的鼠肝细胞中细胞色素P450 CYP1A1, CYP1A2 mRNA的表达水平比空白对照组明显增加，空白对照组CYP1A1吸光度比值为0.270±0.040, 诱导1, 2及4 d的吸光度比值分别为0.343±0.055, 0.417±0.045及0.603±0.083；空白对照组的CYP1A2吸光度比值为0.613±0.189, 而诱导1，2及4 d的吸光度比值分别为1.510±0.226, 3.057±0.518及4.120±0.458。随着诱导时间的增加，细胞色素P450 CYP1A1及CYP1A2 mRNA的表达也逐步增加，诱导时间与表达水平之间存在一定的线性关系,相关系数分别为0.9984和0.9563。结论 地非三唑对细胞色素P450 CYP1A1/2 mRNA表达具有诱导作用。     

A review of the enzymology of arsenic metabolism and a new potential role of hydrogen peroxide in the detoxication of the trivalent arsenic species

This laboratory has studied the enzymology involved in the biotransformation of inorganic arsenic to dimethylarsinous acid (DMA(III)) and in human studies established that monomethylarsonous acid (MMA(III)) and DMA(III) appear in urine of people chronically exposed to arsenic. It appears that only two proteins are required for inorganic arsenic biotransformation in the human, namely, monomethylarsonic acid (MMA(V)) reductase and arsenic methyltransferase. MMA(V) reductase and the unique glutathione transferase omega (hGST-O) are identical proteins. Arsenicals with a +3 oxidation state are more toxic than the +5 species. While methylation of arsenite, MMA(III), and DMA(III) produces less toxic +5 oxidation arsenic species containing an additional methyl group such as MMA(V), dimethylarsinic acid (DMA(V)), and TMAO, a new mechanism involving hydrogen peroxide for detoxifying arsenite, MMA(III), and DMA(III) is proposed based on in vitro experiments.     

Changes of nitric oxide synthase activity and free methylarginines contents in regenerating rat liver after partial hepatectomy

In the present study, liver regeneration rate (%) was increased up to 70% 3 days after partial hepatectomy (PH). Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity in liver tissue as well as serum nitrite/nitrate content had no timed response, revealing no significant difference between shamoperated and partially hepatectomized rat liver. Contents of free methylarginines in liver tissue were increased biphasically in a time-dependent manner after PH. However, those in serum did not exhibit the same patterns as in liver. Taken together, the results suggest that N^G-monomethyl-L-arginine (MMA) and N^G, N^G-dimethylarginine (DMA) play a role in inhibiting nitric oxide (NO) synthesis in regenerating rat liver because the increase of their contents was synchronized with NOS expression.     

Arsenic-induced bladder cancer in an animal model

Dimethylarsinic acid (DMA(V)) is carcinogenic to the rat urinary bladder, but not in mice. The carcinogenic mode of action involves cytotoxicity followed by regenerative cell proliferation. Dietary DMA(V) does not produce urinary solids or significant alterations in urinary composition. The cytotoxicity is due to formation of a reactive metabolite, likely dimethylarsinous acid (DMA(III)), concentrated and excreted in the urine. Urinary concentrations of DMA(III) are dose-dependent, and the urinary concentrations are at cytotoxic levels based on in vitro studies. The no observed effect level (NOEL) in these rat dietary studies for detectable levels of DMA(III), cytotoxicity, and proliferation is 2 ppm, with marginal changes at 10 ppm. The tumorigenic dose is 100 ppm. Recent investigations have demonstrated that arsenicals administered to the rat result in binding to a specific cysteine in the hemoglobin alpha chain as DMA(III), regardless of the arsenical being administered. Monomethylarsonic acid (MMA(V)) is not carcinogenic in rats or mice. In short term experiments (< or =10 weeks), sodium arsenate in the drinking water induces significant cytotoxicity and regenerative proliferation. There is little evidence that the cytotoxicity produced following administration of arsenicals is caused by oxidative damage, as antioxidants show little inhibitory activity of the cytotoxicity of the various arsenicals either in vitro or in vivo. In summary, the mode of action for DMA(V)-induced bladder carcinogenesis in the rat involves generation of a reactive metabolite (DMA(III)) leading to cytotoxicity and regenerative proliferation, is a non-linear process, and likely involves a threshold. Extrapolation to human risk needs to take this into account along with the significant differences in toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics that occur between different species.     

Identification of the human cytochrome P450 enzymes involved in the in vitro metabolism of artemisinin

AIMS: The study aimed to identify the specific human cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes involved in the metabolism of artemisinin. METHODS: Microsomes from human B-lymphoblastoid cell lines transformed with individual CYP450 cDNAs were investigated for their capacity to metabolize artemisinin. The effect on artemisinin metabolism in human liver microsomes by chemical inhibitors selective for individual forms of CYP450 was investigated. The relative contribution of individual CYP450 isoenzymes to artemisinin metabolism in human liver microsomes was evaluated with a tree-based regression model of artemisinin disappearance rate and specific CYP450 activities. RESULTS: The involvement of CYP2B6 in artemisinin metabolism was demonstrated by metabolism of artemisinin by recombinant CYP2B6, inhibition of artemisinin disappearance in human liver microsomes by orphenadrine (76%) and primary inclusion of CYP2B6 in the tree-based regression model. Recombinant CYP3A4 was catalytically competent in metabolizing artemisinin, although the rate was 10% of that for recombinant CYP2B6. The tree-based regression model suggested CYP3A4 to be of importance in individuals with low CYP2B6 expression. Even though ketoconazole inhibited artemisinin metabolism in human liver microsomes by 46%, incubation with ketoconazole together with orphenadrine did not increase the inhibition of artemisinin metabolism compared to orphenadrine alone. Troleandomycin failed to inhibit artemisinin metabolism. The rate of artemisinin metabolism in recombinant CYP2A6 was 15% of that for recombinant CYP2B6. The inhibition of artemisinin metabolism in human liver microsomes by 8-methoxypsoralen (a CYP2A6 inhibitor) was 82% but CYP2A6 activity was not included in the regression tree. CONCLUSIONS: Artemisinin metabolism in human liver microsomes is mediated primarily by CYP2B6 with probable secondary contribution of CYP3A4 in individuals with low CYP2B6 expression. The contribution of CYP2A6 to artemisinin metabolism is likely of minor importance.     

Molecular characterization of cytochrome P450 1A1, 1A2, and 1B1, and effects of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin, dibenzofuran, and biphenyl congeners on their hepatic expression in Baikal seal (Pusa sibirica).

This study attempts to relate the 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin toxic equivalent (TEQ) level with certain responses including the catalytic activities and expression of hepatic cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A and CYP1B in wild population of Baikal seal (Pusa sibirica). We isolated full-length CYP1A1, 1A2, and 1B1 cDNAs, which encode proteins of 516, 512, and 543 amino acids, respectively. Immunochemical analysis demonstrated that a cross-reactive protein with polyclonal antibody against rat CYP1A1 or CYP1B1 was detected in the seal liver. Total TEQ levels showed significant positive correlations with expression levels of CYP1A1, 1A2, and 1B1 mRNAs, and further with both CYP1A- and CYP1B-like proteins, indicating chronic induction of these CYP isozymes by TEQs. The 50% effective concentration for CYP1A-like protein induction was estimated to be 65 pg TEQ/g wet weight. To evaluate the potential of congener-specific metabolism, profiles of negative correlations between the concentrations of eachcongener normalized to a relatively recalcitrant congener, PCB169, and CYP1A-like protein levels were also estimated. Significant negative correlations of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzofuran and PCB77 to CYP1A-like protein expression may possibly be due to the preferential metabolism of these congeners. Anti-rat CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 antisera equivalently inhibited ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity in the seal microsomes, suggesting that both CYPs are involved in EROD activity. Hepatic EROD revealed an increasing trend at lower TEQs, but a declining trend at higher levels, implying a catalytic inhibition of CYP1A and CYP1B. Furthermore, ratios of CYP1B1/CYP1A1 mRNA expression levels increased with TEQs, indicating the enhanced risk of carcinogenicity by preferential induction of CYP1B1 by TEQs in the liver.