Dietary intake of fats and fatty acids in the Korean population: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2013

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVESThe aim of this study was to estimate average total fat and fatty acid intakes as well as identify major food sources using data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) VI-1 (2013).SUBJECTS/METHODSTotal fat and fatty acid intakes were estimated using 24-hour dietary recall data on 7,048 participants aged ≥ 3 years from the KNHANES VI-1 (2013). Data included total fat, saturated fatty acid (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), n-3 fatty acid (n-3 FA), and n-6 fatty acid (n-6 FA) levels. Population means and standard errors of the mean were weighted in order to produce national estimates and separated based on sex, age, income, as well as residential region. Major food sources of fat, SFA, MUFA, PUFA, n-3 FA, and n-6 FA were identified based on mean consumption amounts of fat and fatty acids in each food.RESULTSThe mean intake of total fat was 48.0 g while mean intakes of SFA, MUFA, PUFA, n-3 FA, and n-6 FA were 14.4 g, 15.3 g, 11.6 g, 1.6 g, and 10.1 g, respectively. Intakes of MUFA and SFA were each higher than that of PUFA in all age groups. Pork was the major source of total fat, SFA, and MUFA, and soybean oil was the major source of PUFA. Milk and pork were major sources of SFA in subjects aged 3-11 years and ≥ 12 years, respectively. Perilla seed oil and soybean oil were main sources of n-3 FA in subjects aged ≥ 50 years and aged < 50 years, respectively.CONCLUSIONSEstimation of mean fatty acid intakes of this study using nationally represented samples of the Korean population could be useful for developing and evaluating national nutritional policies.     

中国成人膳食脂肪酸摄入和食物来源状况分析

目的分析我国成人膳食脂肪酸摄入量及主要脂肪酸的食物来源。方法利用2002年中国居民营养与健康状况调查中3d24h回顾膳食调查结果,结合食物成分表中脂肪酸数据及补充测定的34种食物脂肪酸数据,对44905名成人(不包括孕妇和乳母)的膳食脂肪酸摄入量及食物来源进行分析。结果城市居民饱和脂肪酸(SFA)、单不饱和脂肪酸(MUFA)和多不饱和脂肪酸(PUFA)摄入量中位数分别为15.9、23.6和20.2,农村居民分别为13.8、23.4和13.7g/d;城市居民α亚麻酸(ALA)、二十碳五烯酸(EPA)、二十二碳六烯酸(DHA)、亚油酸(LA)和花生四烯酸(AA)摄入量中位数分别为2.3g/d、1.8mg/d、22.1mg/d、17.6g/d、45.4mg/d,农村居民分别为1.3g/d、0.0mg/d、6.0mg/d、11.3g/d、43.1mg/d。城市、农村居民膳食中S/M/P比值分别为1:1.4:1.3和1:1.5:1.1;n-6/n-3系列多不饱和脂肪酸比例分别为7.6和8.0。全国居民SFA、MUFA和PUFA供能百分比中位数分别为6.1、9.8和6.3。城市居民51.4%的膳食SFA来自动物性食物,农村为38.5%。城市和农村居民膳食中MUFA的主要来源是食用油和动物性食物。城市居民膳食脂肪中约50%的PUFA、n-6PUFA和n-3PUFA来自于豆油和色拉油;农村PUFA和n-6系列PUFA来源广泛。农村居民膳食n-3PUFA近一半来自于菜籽油。结论城乡居民SFA、MUFA、PUFA的摄入比例合理;与参考摄入量相比,城乡居民n-6/n-3PUFA比例偏高,应增加膳食中n-3系列PUFA摄入量所占比例。     

Increasing trends in dietary total fat and fatty acid intake among Korean children: using the 2007–2017 national data

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVESThe prevalence of obesity has been increasing in Korean children. As an unhealthy diet is known as one of the major determinants of childhood obesity, assessing and monitoring dietary fat intake of children is needed.SUBJECTS/METHODSThis analysis included 9,998 children aged 3–11 yrs from the 2007–2017 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. Dietary data were obtained from a single 24-h dietary recall. Intakes of total fat and fatty acids, including saturated fatty acid (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), n-3 fatty acid (n-3 FA), and n-6 fatty acid (n-6 FA) were evaluated as the absolute amount (g) and proportion of energy from each fatty acid (% of energy). The total fat and SFA intake were also assessed according to compliance with dietary guidelines. Linear trends in the dietary fats intake across the survey period were tested using multiple regression models.RESULTSTotal fat intake significantly increased from 38.5 g (20.3% of energy) to 43.4 g (23.3% of energy) from 2007 to 2017. This increase was mainly accounted for the increases in intakes of SFA (7.2% to 8.4% of energy) and MUFA (6.2% to 7.5% of energy). PUFA intake increased from 4.4 to 4.7% of energy during the 11-yrs period: from 0.57 to 0.63% of energy for n-3 FA and from 3.8 to 4.1% of energy for n-6 FA. The proportions of children who consumed amounts exceeding the dietary guidelines for total fat and SFA significantly increased from 2007 to 2017, with increases from 9.8% to 17.4% for total fat and from 36.9% to 50.9% for SFA.CONCLUSIONSProminent increasing trends in the consumption of total fat and SFA but tiny change in n-3 FA intake were observed in Korean children. The healthy intake of dietary fats should be emphasized in this population.     

High carbohydrate diets are positively associated with the risk of metabolic syndrome irrespective to fatty acid composition in women: the KNHANES 2007–2014

We evaluated that carbohydrates and fatty acids intake modifies the prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and we also determined gender–nutrient interaction in 38,766 adults in KNHANES (2007–2014). Carbohydrate intake was positively associated, and fat intake inversely associated, with the incidence of MetS. The association exhibited a gender interaction with the macronutrient intake; this association was significant in females. Furthermore, saturated fatty acid (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) intakes were inversely associated with MetS risk and only females showed the positive association. Both n-3 and n-6 fatty acids intake showed inverse associations with MetS risk, similar to PUFA intake. Among the MetS components, serum triglyceride levels and blood pressure had significant inverse associations with fatty acid intake irrespective of fatty acid types and exhibited a gender interaction. In conclusions, high carbohydrate intakes (≥74.2 En%) may increase the MetS risk and moderate fat intakes (≥20.7 En%), irrespective of fat types, may decrease it. These associations were significant only in women.     

不同水产品消费地区孕妇脂肪酸摄入量调查

目的分析我国不同水产品消费地区孕妇脂肪酸摄入状况。方法应用食物频率法分别在淡水产品消费量较高的江苏省句容市、海产品消费量较高的山东省即墨市以及水产品消费量很低的河南省辉县市,对180名22~35岁孕妇进行妊娠中、晚期膳食调查,分析脂肪酸摄入状况。结果句容、即墨、辉县孕妇膳食中饱和脂肪酸(SFA),单不饱和脂肪酸(MUFA),多不饱和脂肪酸(PUFA)的比例分别为1:2.50:1.05、1:1.44:1.31、1:1.48:1.24。n-6PUFA/n-3PUFA分别为5.51、17.62、13.85。辉县孕妇膳食中SFA和n-6PUFA摄入量最高;句容孕妇膳食中MUFA和n-3PUFA摄入量最高;即墨孕妇膳食中二十碳五烯酸(EPA,20:5n-3)和二十二碳六烯酸(DHA,22:6n-3)摄入量最高。句容和辉县孕妇膳食中的花生四烯酸(AA,20:4n-6)摄入量均高于即墨。三地孕妇膳食中EPA和DHA均主要来自水产品;AA主要来自畜禽肉类和蛋类;亚麻酸(ALA,18:3n-3)和亚油酸(LA,18:2n-6)主要来自食用油、畜禽肉类、坚果和主食及糕点类。结论三地区SFA、MUFA、PUFA的摄入比例合理。即墨、辉县孕妇膳食中n-6/n-3PUFA比例偏高;即墨市孕妇膳食中DHA和EPA摄入量高于其它两地,但仍明显低于推荐量。建议增加孕妇膳食n-3PUFA,特别是DHA和EPA的摄入量。     

Animal nutrition and lipids in animal products and their contribution to human intake and health

Few EU countries meet targets for saturated fatty acid (SFA) intake. Dairy products usually represent the single largest source of SFA, yet evidence indicates that milk has cardioprotective properties. Options for replacing some of the SFA in milk fat with cis-monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) through alteration of the cow's diet are examined. Also, few people achieve minimum recommended intakes (~450-500 mg/d) of the long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Enrichment of EPA+DHA in poultry meat via bird nutrition is described and how this would impact on habitual intake is discussed.     

Contribution of specific foods to fat, fatty acids, and cholesterol in the development of a food frequency questionnaire in Koreans

The present study identified dietary sources of fat, fatty acids, and cholesterol in Koreans residing in and near Seoul. The study also identified foods to be included in a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) by both contribution analysis (CA) and multiple regression analysis (MRA). Three-day dietary records were collected from 224 subjects (107 men and 117 women) aged 30 to 85 years. Pork was the main source of total fat and the largest contributor to saturated fatty acids (SFA) was beef. MRA identified animal food as the primary source of between-person variance for SFA. Arachidonic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid originated primarily from marine products. About a fourth of the total cholesterol intake was derived from chickens' eggs by CA, while chickens' eggs accounted for 46% of the cholesterol intake for between-person variance by MRA. With 10 food items, the FFQ could explain more than half of total intakes except for total fat and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), and at least 65% of between-person variances. The percentage coverage in the FFQ ranged from 61% for n-6 PUFA and linoleic acid and to 90% for arachidonic acid. The value of this FFQ is that it can estimate usual dietary food patterns and nutrient intake in Koreans for epidemiological studies. It can also potentially be used to study the relationship between specific diseases and nutrient intakes of interest.     

Maternal fatty acid intake and fetal growth: evidence for an association in overweight women. The 'EDEN mother-child' cohort (study of pre- and early postnatal determinants of the child's development and health)

Recent studies suggest a benefit of seafood and n-3 fatty acid intake on fetal growth and infant development. The objective was to study the association between fatty acid intake and fetal growth in pregnant French women. Pregnant women included in the EDEN mother-child cohort study completed FFQ on their usual diet: (1) in the year before pregnancy and (2) during the last 3 months of pregnancy (n 1439). Conversion into nutrient intakes was performed using data on portion size and a French food composition table. Associations between maternal fatty acid intakes and several neonatal anthropometric measurements were studied using linear regressions adjusted for centre, mother's age, smoking habits, height, parity, gestational age and newborn's sex. Due to significant interaction, analyses were stratified according to maternal pre-pregnancy overweight status. Neither total lipid nor SFA, MUFA or PUFA intake was significantly associated with newborn size. In overweight women only (n 366), a high pre-pregnancy n-3 fatty acid intake (% PUFA) was positively associated with the newborn's birth weight (P=0.01), head, arm and wrist circumferences and sum of skinfolds (P<0.04). A substitution of 1% of n-3 fatty acids per d before pregnancy by other PUFA was related to an average decrease in birth weight of 60 g (P=0.01). Relationships with n-3 fatty acid intake at the end of pregnancy were weaker and not significant. We concluded that a high pre-pregnancy n-3 fatty acid:PUFA ratio may sustain fetal growth in overweight women. Follow-up of the children may help determine whether this has beneficial consequences for the child's health and development.     

Variations in fat and fatty acid intakes of adult males from three regions of India

Fat and fatty acid intakes of 25 healthy adult urban males from Ghaziabad, U.P.; Goa and Kolkata, W.Bengal, respectively were studied. Fat intakes were estimated using dietary records, food frequency questionnaires and chemical analysis of the diets consumed. Fatty acid intakes were estimated by gas chromatography. Total fat intakes ranged from 26.9 g/day to 163.2g/ day. Percent subjects having intakes above the desirable level were 72% in Kolkata, 36% in Ghaziabad, U.P. and only 10% in Goa. Visible fat constituted more than 60 percent of total fat. In all 3 areas, SFA intakes were higher and MUFA lower than desirable levels. Palmitic acid constituted at least 50% of SFA intakes. In Goa, lauric acid, in Ghaziabad and Kolkata, stearic acid and myristic acid were major dietary SFAs, In Kolkata, erucic acid was 17.3+/-8.3%. Overall 60% of subjects had n-6:n-3 intakes close to the desirable ratio. Linoleic acid constituted almost the entire n-6 intake. Alpha linolenic acid constituted most of the n-3 intakes in Ghaziabad, U.P. and Kolkata. The ratios of SFA:MUFA--PUFA vaned widely and percent subjects with intakes close to the desirable ratios were 12% in Goa, 23% in Ghaziabad and 40% in Kolkata. The data highlights the need for limiting fat intakes and modifying diets to provide fatty acids in desirable ratios.     

Total fat and fatty acid intakes and food sources in Mediterranean older adults requires education to improve health

The proportion of fat has increased at the expense of carbohydrates in the past years, and we aimed to assess total fat and fatty acids intake and their food sources among Mediterranean older adults and compare them to national and international recommendations. This study was conducted in 211 participants to determine lipid and fatty acid intake using a Spanish food database. The mean daily intake of lipids was 68.6 g/d (standard deviation [SD]: 24.6; 34.4%, SD: 7.0 of total energy consumed). Men, younger participants, and those with higher education ingested more lipids than their peers. Fatty acids were ingested as follows (expressed as percentage of total energy intake): monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) (16.7%, SD: 4.1), saturated fatty acids (SFA) (9.6%, SD: 2.6), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) (5.0%, SD: 1.7). Oils and seeds were the highest contributors in the intake of lipids (38.8%, SD: 16.0), MUFA (53.9%, SD: 18.7), and PUFA (33.0%, SD: 16.4). The total fat intake (34.4%, SD: 7.0) was within the range of International and Spanish recommendations among Mediterranean older adults; however, the intake of fatty acids did not abide by the international (PUFA) and Spanish recommendations (SFA, MUFA). α-Linoleic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid intake were lower than recommendations, but cholesterol intake (243.9 mg, SD: 140.4) was within the range of recommendations. Therefore, public health campaigns are needed to encourage older adults to decrease SFA intake and increase adherence to the Mediterranean diet pattern for a better health.     

Fatty acid consumption pattern of Americans: 1987–1988 USDA Nationwide Food Consumption Survey

This study characterized the fatty acid intake pattern and the contribution of different food groups to the fatty acid intake of Americans using the U.S. Department of Agriculture's 1987–1988 Nationwide Food Consumption Survey. The fatty acid intake was estimated using three-day food consumption data for children age 6–11 and for males and females age 12–19, 20–39 and 40 and older. Palmitic acid was the predominant saturated fatty acid (SFA) in the diet for all age sex groups, contributing 52–57% of SFA intake. Oleic acid was the primary monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) for all age sex groups, comprising 91–95% of MUFA intake. Linoleic acid was the principle polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) for all age sex groups, contributing 87–92% of PUFA intake. The Milk and Milk Products group was the major contributor of the short chain SFA and lauric and myristic acids. Meat, Poultry and Meat Mixtures were the main sources of palmitic and stearic acids. Grain Products contributed appreciably to the long chain SFA intake. Oleic acid was obtained mainly from Meat, Poultry, Fish and Mixtures. Yeast breads, rolls, cakes, cookies and pastries were the main contributors of linoleic acid intake. A variety of animal and vegetable products contributed to the linolenic acid and C_18:4+20:4 intake, while fish and shellfish were the main sources of C_20:5+22:6 fatty acids. The contribution of the various food groups to intake of individual fatty acids was similar for both males and females. The results of the present study indicate that a wide variety of food groups contribute to the total fat intake Americans.     

Total Fat and Fatty Acid Intake among 1–7-Year-Old Children from 33 Countries: Comparison with International Recommendations

This work reviews available data on dietary intakes of total fat, saturated fatty acids (SFA) and individual polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in children in different countries worldwide and for the first time, compares them with recent international recommendations. Studies published before June 2021 reporting total fat, total SFA and individual PUFA intakes in children aged 1–7 y were included. Observed intakes were evaluated against FAO/WHO and EFSA recommendations. 65 studies from 33 countries were included. Fat intake was too low in 88% of studies in young children (1–3 y). SFA intake was >10%E in 69–73% of children, especially in Europe. Linoleic acid intake was <3%E in 24% of studies in 1–2 y olds and within FAO/WHO recommendations among all other ages. Alpha-linolenic acid intake was <0.5%E in almost half of studies. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) or eicosapentaenoic acid + DHA intakes were below recommendations in most studies. In summary, while total fat intake was too low among younger children, SFA intake was above, especially in Europe and n-3 PUFA intake, especially DHA, were below recommendations for all ages. Intake of n-3 PUFA, especially DHA, is generally suboptimal. More data, particularly from developing countries, are required to refine these findings and guide implementation of adapted nutrition policies.     

Intake of nutrients associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease in a Spanish population

The daily intake of nutrients associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease was assessed in Spain to provide current data on adequance to the Spanish nutritional objectives and recommendations. The energy and nutrient distribution throughout the day was also determined. Nutrient intake data of 100 people (24 males and 76 females) aged 20-40 years living in Ponferrada (León, northwest Spain) were calculated from seven non-consecutive daily dietary records using Spanish food composition tables. The survey was carried out in the autumn of 2001. The average energy (E) intake was 2906.67 kcal (12.16 MJ)/day among men and 2106.95 kcal (8.82 MJ)/day among women, with total fat accounting for 39.21 E% (men) and 38.96 E% (women). Average saturated fatty acids (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) were 13.03, 15.51 and 6.22 E% (men), and 12.20, 15.58 and 7.10 E% (women). The SFA:MUFA:PUFA ratios were 2.1:2.5:1.0 (men) and 1.7:2.2:1.0 (women), with adequate essential fatty acids (FA) amounts. PUFA n-3 FA daily intake (2.46 g and 1.68 g for men and women, respectively) was adjusted to the recommended levels, with a n-6/n-3 ratio of 7.14 (men) and 8.33 (women). Low trans-FA levels were reported both among male (3.10 g/day) and female (2.21 g/day) populations. High daily cholesterol intakes were found (440.87 mg for men and 359.14 mg for women). Average daily intakes of dietary fibre, alcohol, vitamin A, vitamin C and vitamin E, selenium and sodium were 20.14 and 15.68 g, 7.00 and 4.11 g, 736.00 and 739.28 retinol equivalents, 103.45 and 95.24 mg, 8.73 and 7.84 mg, 83.26 and 45.93 micrograms, and 3777.21 and 2488.12 mg for men and women, respectively. The vitamin E (mg):PUFA (g) ratios were 0.44 (male) and 0.46 (female). Dinner (10.00 p.m. approximately) showed the highest densities (g/1000 kcal) of fat and cholesterol, while breakfast had the highest densities of SFA and trans-FA, both in men and women. Our results advise a decrease in total fat, SFA, n-6 FA, cholesterol and sodium amounts. In contrast, energy intake and consumption of dietetic fibre, vitamins A and E (both sexes) and selenium (women) should be increased in the study population.     

Dietary Fat and Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Intakes during Childhood Are Prospectively Associated with Puberty Timing Independent of Dietary Protein

Dietary fat and fat quality have been inconsistently associated with puberty timing. The aim of this study was to investigate the prospective associations of dietary fat, saturated fatty acid (SFA), polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), and monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) with puberty timing. Using longitudinal data from China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS) and Southwest China Childhood Nutrition and Growth (SCCNG) Study, we analyzed dietary data, anthropometric measurements, and potential confounders. Dietary intakes were assessed by 3-day 24-h recalls. Age at Tanner stage 2 for breast/genital development (B2/G2) and age at menarche/voice break (M/VB) were used as puberty development markers. Cox proportional hazard regression models were used to estimate the relevance of dietary intake of total fat, SFA, PUFA, and MUFA on puberty timing. Among 3425 girls and 2495 boys, children with higher intakes of total fat and PUFA were more likely to reach their B2/G2 or M/VB at an earlier age. Associations were not attenuated on additional adjustment for childhood dietary protein intake. However, higher intakes of SFA or MUFA were not independently associated with puberty development. A higher intake of dietary fat and PUFA in prepuberty was associated with earlier puberty timing, which was independent of dietary protein intake.     

广州成人膳食n-6/n-3脂肪酸比值与心血管疾病危险因素的关系

目的分析广州40～65岁居民膳食n-6/n-3脂肪酸比值与心血管疾病危险因素的关系。方法 40～65岁广州市民1133人,采用定量食物频数问卷调查对象的每日摄入食物种类和数量,计算能量和营养素摄入量,检测其红细胞膜脂肪酸构成、血脂及颈动脉内中膜厚度(IMT),分析n-6/n-3比值大小高Q3,中Q2,低Q1与血压、血脂和IMT的关系。结果 995人资料完整纳入分析。对象日均膳食总能量摄入为9.10±2.09MJ、脂肪供能比为(34.3±7.9)%。膳食n-6/n-3脂肪酸比值为(29.74±22.71):1,红细胞膜n-6/n-3脂肪酸比值为(2.7±1.0):1,膳食SFA:MUFA:PUFA为1:1.5:1。膳食n-3脂肪酸摄入量与红细胞膜n-3构成比、膳食n-6/n-3比值与红细胞膜n-6/n-3比值均呈显著正相关关系。膳食n-6/n-3比值最高组Q3(>31.16)对象的收缩压、TC和IMT水平显著高于最低组Q1(<17.40);红细胞膜n-6/n-3比值最高组Q3(>3.04)和中间组Q2(2.18～3.03)对象的收缩压、舒张压、TC、LDL-C及IMT水平均显著高于最低组Q1(≤2.17)。结论广州市40～65岁居民膳食n-6/n-3脂肪酸比值约为30:1;该比值小于17.40:1时,有较低的血压,总胆固醇及IMT水平。     

Effects of different quantities of fat on serum and liver lipids, phospholipid class distribution and fatty acid composition in alcohol-treated rats

The present study investigated the quantitative effect of dietary fats and ingestion of alcohol on serum and liver lipids, fatty acid bound to phospholipids and their class distribution of male Wistar rats. The rats in C (control) and A (alcohol) groups were fed a standard laboratory diet, HFC (high fat-control) and HFA (high fat-alcohol) groups were fed a high fat diet (standard diet supplemented with 20 g%w/w, sunflower oil: lard mixture 1: 1) for 6 wk. Alcohol-treated rats consumed alcohol at the rate of 9 g/kgbw/d (15-20% energy). Liver phospholipid (PL) content was decreased, and phospholipid/cholesterol liver molar ratio increased in the alcohol treated rats. The proportion of serum sphingophospholipid (Sph) was significantly lower and proportion of phosphatidylcholin (PC) significantly higher in serum PL in alcohol-treated rats. Phospholipid class distribution was unaffected by alcohol feeding in liver. Significantly lower levels of 16:1n-7 and higher levels of 20:5n-3 and 22:4n-6 in the serum PL were observed in the alcohol-treated rats. The groups on the HF diet increased levels of 20:4n-6, 22:4n-6 and total n-6, polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) and decreased levels of 18:1n-9 and total monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA)in both liver and serum PL, but n-3 fatty acid increased in serum PL and decreased in liver PL compared to groups on the standard diet. Alcohol fat interaction was evident in MUFA and PUFA/SFA in serum PL and n-6, MUFA, PUFA and polyunsaturated/saturated fatty acid ratios (PUFA/SFA) in liver PL. This study showed that the high fat intake in alcohol-treated rats increased levels of 20:4n-6, 22:4n-6 and 20:4/18:2 ratio, and decreased level of 18:1n-9 in liver and serum phospholipids.     

Compliance with the European and national nutritional objectives in a Mediterranean population

OBJECTIVE: To analyze compliance with the current European and Spanish nutritional objectives in a representative sample from Catalonia, a Spanish Mediterranean region; and to examine relationships between diet and plasma fatty acid composition. DESIGN: Cross-sectional nutritional survey. SETTING: Population based random sample derived from the Catalan Nutrition Survey. SUBJECTS: A total of 516 healthy adult men (n=203) and women (n=313). METHODS: Dietary habits were assessed by means of a quantitative food frequency questionnaire. A physical exam included height, weight, waist and hip circumferences, and a fasting blood draw. RESULTS: Gender differences were observed in nutrient and energy intakes. Women showed a better compliance with the nutritional recommendations for monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) than did men. Men showed a better compliance for saturated fatty acid (SFA) and carbohydrate than did women. However, the SFA:MUFA:PUFA ratio was similar in both gender (1.6:2.3:1.0 for men; 1.7:2.5:1.0 for women). The highest compliance was observed for nutritional goals of sodium, calcium and fruit and vegetable intakes for both genders. In addition, the present study showed that levels of certain fatty acids in plasma are clearly associated with dietary intake of foods rich in these components. The highest correlations were found for n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids with blue fish intake in both men and women (r (men)=0.36 and r (women)=0.42; P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The diet followed in Catalonia seems to ensure compliance with most of the intermediate nutritional objectives for the Spanish population. However, a reduction in the SFA intake and an increase in the carbohydrate intake could be recommended in order to reduce the current prevalence of overweight and obesity in this Mediterranean region. SPONSORSHIP: This study was supported by the Catalan Department of Health, the Nutrition Catalan Centre of the Institute of Catalan Studies, and Mercadona SA.     

Single measurement of serum phospholipid fatty acid as a biomarker of specific fatty acid intake in middle-aged Japanese men

OBJECTIVE: To assess the utility of serum phospholipid fatty acid (FA) levels as a biochemical indicator of habitual dietary fatty acid intake in Japanese, whose diet is characterized by low fat intake and high intake of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) of marine origin. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Eighty-seven male volunteers from four public health center districts that were part of the Japan Public Health Center based Prospective Study (JPHC Study) cohort I, were included in this study. Habitual intake of fatty acid was obtained by 7 day weighed dietary records four times (in one area only twice) in 1994--1995. Blood was collected twice, in February and August of the same year, and the composition of FA in serum phospholipid was analyzed by gas chromatography. The correlation coefficient between serum phospholipid FA levels and fatty acid intake was calculated. RESULTS: High correlations were observed for eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which are marine origin n-3 PUFA (r=0.75, 0.49, 0.50, respectively). No significant correlation was observed for saturated fatty acid (SFA), although the monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), palmitoleic acid and oleic acid intake were moderately correlated (r=0.22, 0.35, respectively). The correlations for EPA, DPA and DHA were similar in both samples collected in February and August. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that in populations with a high and stable over time intake of n-3 PUFA of marine origin, a single measurement of serum phospholipids reflects the ranking of habitual intake of marine origin n-3 PUFA.     

Structured dietary advice incorporating walnuts achieves optimal fat and energy balance in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVE: A cardioprotective dietary fat profile is recommended for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. The clinical feasibility of advice strategies targeting specific fatty acid intakes and the extent to which they can be achieved by free-living populations needs to be tested. Walnuts, with high n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content, may help optimize fatty acid intakes, but regular consumption might increase total fat and energy intakes. This study examined whether advice that refers to a total dietary pattern inclusive of walnuts would result in low-fat energy-controlled diets with optimal dietary fat proportions for patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A parallel-design, controlled trial was completed by 55 free-living men and women with established type 2 diabetes mellitus. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: low-fat (general advice), modified low-fat (total diet advice using exchange lists to differentiate PUFA-rich foods), walnut-specific (modified low fat including 30 g walnuts/day). Dietary intakes and clinical outcomes were measured at baseline, and at 3 and 6 months. Dietary goals were: less than 10% of energy from saturated fat, 7% to 10% of energy from PUFA, adequate n-3 PUFA (>or=2.22 g alpha-linolenic acid, >or=0.65 g eicosapentaenoic acid [EPA]+docosahexaenoic acid [DHA]) and n-6 to n-3 ratio less than 10. The proportion of subjects achieving dietary goals and major food sources of fat were determined. RESULTS: At baseline, dietary intakes were not significantly different between groups. No group and few individuals (10%) were consuming adequate PUFA, with meat the main source of dietary fat (22% total dietary fat). At 3 and 6 months, energy and macronutrient intakes were similar among groups. The walnut group, however, was the only group to achieve all fatty acid intake targets (P <.01), and had the greatest proportion of subjects achieving targets ( P <.05). Walnuts were the main source of dietary fat (31%) and n-3 PUFA (50%), while 350 g oily fish/day provided a further 17% n-3 PUFA consumed by this group. CONCLUSIONS: Specific advice for the regular inclusion of walnuts in the context of the total diet helps achieve optimal fat intake proportions without adverse effects on total fat or energy intakes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.     

Energy, macronutrient and fatty acid intake of French elderly community dwellers and association with socio-demographic characteristics: data from the Bordeaux sample of the Three-City Study

Few data are available regarding dietary habits of the elderly, in particular about fatty acid consumption, whereas these are major risk or protective factors of several age-related diseases. The aim of the present study was to characterise the dietary intake of a French elderly population in terms of energy, macronutrients and fatty acids based on their socio-demographic characteristics. The study population (age range 67.7-94.9 years) consisted of 1786 subjects from Bordeaux (France), included in the Three-City cohort. Dietary assessment was performed by a 24 h recall, allowing the estimation of energy, protein, carbohydrate, total fat, SFA, MUFA and PUFA intakes. Socio-demographic characteristics (age, sex, marital status, educational level and income), practice of sports and BMI were registered. Total energy intake (EI) was lower in women and in older participants ( > or = 85 years) but higher in single subjects. Higher EI was associated with higher income, but not with educational level. Mean contribution of macronutrients to EI (protein 18%, carbohydrate 46% and total fat 31%) was higher in women than men, except for alcohol. The oldest individuals consumed less protein and more mono- and disaccharides. Excess saturated fat intake (43% of total fat), associated with a relative deficit in MUFA consumption (36% of total fat), was observed. The mean 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio was 9.9 and decreased with higher educational level. The present results suggest that being female, older age, being widowed and low income level could be considered as risk factors of inadequate dietary intake.