Computer-based spelling instruction for students with developmental disabilities

Learning to spell on the computer may lead to functionally useful writing skills. Alan and Suzy, teenagers with developmental disabilities, were already proficient on a variety of naming and matching tasks but had difficulties spelling; Suzy also made errors reading orally. In Experiment 1, computer teaching led to new anagram and written spelling performances. Suzy's reading also improved. On tabletop tasks, Alan and Suzy sorted and retrieved objects to a list they wrote and read aloud. When the tabletop tasks were repeated weeks later, Alan's spelling accuracy declined but Suzy's was nearly perfect. In Experiment 2, using a different and refined teaching format, Alan relearned his old words and Suzy learned to spell new words. Immediately afterwards, and weeks later, both Alan and Suzy performed nearly perfectly on the tabletop matching, sorting, and reading tasks. The results replicate previous research and extend it with a refined package of computer methods that establishes durable and potentially functional writing skills. The possibility that learning to spell also improves oral reading is worthy of further research.     

The effect of a touch-typing program on keyboarding skills of higher education students with and without learning disabilities

This study examined the effect of a touch-typing instructional program on keyboarding skills of higher education students. One group included students with developmental learning disabilities (LD, n = 44), consisting of students with reading and/or handwriting difficulties. The second group included normally achieving students (NA, n = 30). The main goal of the program was to increase keyboarding speed while maintaining accuracy. The program included 14 bi-weekly touch-typing lessons, using the “Easy-Fingers” software (Weigelt Marom & Weintraub, 2010a), that combines a touch-typing instructional program and a keystroke logging program, to document the time and accuracy of each typed key. The effect of the program was examined by comparing keyboarding skills between the beginning (pre-test), the end of the program (post-test) and 3 months after termination of the program (long-term). Results showed that at the end of the program, keyboarding speed of the NA students decreased while the speed of the students with LD somewhat increased. In the long-term evaluation, both groups significantly improved their speed compared to pre-test. In both cases high accuracy (above 95%) was maintained. These results suggest that touch-typing instruction may benefit students in general, and more specific, students with LD studying in higher education, which often use computers in order to circumvent their handwriting difficulties.     

Teaching students with developmental disabilities to locate their AAC device

Students with autism and related developmental disabilities who do not speak are often taught to use some type of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) system, such as a voice output communication aid (VOCA). One problem with such devices is that the person may be unable to communicate when the device is not readily accessible. We first taught three nonverbal students with autism to use a VOCA to request access to preferred items. Following this initial acquisition phase, however, none of the students would locate their VOCA when it was not within reach. A least-to-most prompting procedure was implemented to teach the students to locate their AAC device. The effectiveness of this procedure for teaching VOCA location skills was evaluated in a delayed multiple-baseline across subjects design. The results showed that the intervention was effective in teaching the students to locate their AAC device when they needed it to request access to preferred objects. Teaching VOCA location skills may be a useful and necessary component in AAC interventions for some people with developmental disabilities.     

Rapid assessment of severe cognitive impairment in individuals with developmental disabilities

Background Most standardized intelligence tests require more than 1 hour for administration, which is problematic when evaluating individuals with intellectual disabilities and developmental disabilities (IDDD), because a significant proportion of these individuals can not tolerate lengthy evaluations. Furthermore, most standardized intelligence tests are of limited usefulness for individuals with severe cognitive deficits because of floor effects. Methods A number of low‐difficulty items were selected from standardized tests. A total of 271 participants with profound, severe, moderate and mild levels of cognitive impairment took part in this study. In the formative phase, 68 participants were evaluated with the selected items, and those items that differentiated between levels of cognitive impairment were retained in the battery. The instrument was then modified and standardized with an additional 203 participants. Results The instrument, referred to as the Rapid Assessment for Developmental Disabilities (RADD), required 10–25 min for administration. Internal reliability estimates from the RADD total score and from individual subtests satisfied conventional and rigorous statistical criteria (median alpha r = 0.93). The RADD total score was strongly correlated with the level of cognitive impairment (rho = 0.86). The RADD total score and individual subtests differentiated between all levels of cognitive impairment ( Wilks Λ = 0.135, F_42,525.832 = 12.075, P < 0.001). Receiver operating characteristic curves indicated the instrument was particularly sensitive to the cognitive abilities of the most seriously impaired participants. Conclusions The RADD, composed of low‐difficulty items from published tests, is rapidly administered, assesses a wide range of cognitive skills and differentiates among all levels of cognitive impairment. The battery has clinical utility with populations exhibiting short attention spans because of its ability to quickly assess a wide range of cognitive abilities. The RADD also has research potential for the documentation of cognitive function in studies of individuals with IDDD.     

Instructional interactions of students with cognitive disabilities: sequential analysis

We studied instructional interactions through semi-structured observation of 13 student- teacher dyads involving elementary students with cognitive disabilities. Special educators' use of directions and responses of differing modes and types was analyzed. Student task-engagement behaviors (i.e., active engage, disruptive, passive on-task, off-task) provided a context for understanding differences in teacher styles. Results indicate that teacher directions were followed by student active engagement; and teacher responses, by student passive task-orientation. This higher quality feedback from students, together with outerdirectedness of students with cognitive disabilities, is postulated as a mechanism that maintains a high level of teacher directiveness. Sequential relationship patterns changed as student engagement levels varied, suggesting a child-driven model of teacher-child instructional interactions.     

Mouse models for Down syndrome-associated developmental cognitive disabilities

Down syndrome (DS) is mainly caused by the presence of an extra copy of human chromosome 21 (Hsa21) and is a leading genetic cause for developmental cognitive disabilities in humans. The mouse is a premier model organism for DS because the regions on Hsa21 are syntenically conserved with three regions in the mouse genome, which are located on mouse chromosome 10 (Mmu10), Mmu16 and Mmu17. With the advance of chromosomal manipulation technologies, new mouse mutants have been generated to mimic DS at both the genotypic and phenotypic levels. Further mouse-based molecular genetic studies in the future may lead to the unraveling of the mechanisms underlying DS-associated developmental cognitive disabilities, which would lay the groundwork for developing effective treatments for this phenotypic manifestation. In this review, we will discuss recent progress and future challenges in modeling DS-associated developmental cognitive disability in mice with an emphasis on hippocampus-related phenotypes.     

Fragile X syndrome: associated neurological abnormalities and developmental disabilities

The fragile X syndrome is a frequent cause of developmental disabilities. It is associated primarily with nonprogressive X-linked mental retardation. The neurodevelopmental abnormalities of 25 males and 3 females are described. Mental retardation was mild in 4, moderate in 11, severe in 6, and profound in 2 patients, while 4 patients had only learning disabilities. The presence or absence of a developmental disability could not be determined in the youngest (8 months). Seven patients had had infantile autism and 7 had epilepsy. Generally no major focal neurological abnormalities were observed but most of the patients exhibited minor signs. The severity of developmental disabilities in our patients varied between and within families and between genders. All adult males had macroorchidism. Unusual facial features were present in 13 males but none were seen in the females. Familial occurrences were found in 18 cases (64%); 10 cases (36%) were sporadic. Overall, males were more severely affected than females. Diagnostic tests including computed tomographic scans, electroencephalograms, and evoked potentials did not disclose any specific abnormalities.     

The effects of behavioural relaxation on cognitive performance in adults with severe intellectual disabilities

Behavioural relaxation training has been found to be effective in the treatment of generalized anxiety in people with intellectual disability. The present study is designed to assess whether or not these techniques can help individuals in more generalized aspects of their life. Two groups of 10 adults with a severe intellectual disability formed a relaxation group and a control group. The relaxation group were given a course in behavioural relaxation training and the control group were given a quiet reading period for the same amount of time. Each subject was given a digit span test, a test of long-term memory and an incidental learning test after each session. Results suggest behavioural relaxation training has a beneficial effect on performance on tests of short-term memory and incidental learning, but no effect upon long-term memory.     

The influence of intelligence and cognitive abilities on the reading ability of Japanese students with developmental disorders

ObjectiveWe examined the differences in reading skills between Japanese students with developmental dyslexia (DD) having developmental disorders who had borderline IQ (BIQ) and those who had normal IQ (NIQ), and the influence of cognitive factors through subscale scores of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Fourth Edition on the reading skills of all students with DD having developmental disorders.MethodsOne-way analysis of variance revealed differences in reading scores among the four groups (DD with NIQ, DD with BIQ, as well as non-DD with NIQ and non-DD with BIQ as control groups). To examine the influence of cognitive factors, we used multiple regression analysis for all participants, and then for participants with DD.ResultsRegarding hiragana nonword fluency reading, no difference was observed between the two DD groups, and cognitive factors did not affect the performance of all participants with DD. Concerning hiragana word fluency reading, DD with NIQ group performed better than DD group with BIQ, and working memory index affected reading skills of participants with DD. Regarding kanji accuracy reading, DD with NIQ group performed better than DD with BIQ group, and processing speed index affected performance of participants with DD.ConclusionsThe results of hiragana reading suggest that the two DD groups shared similar weak sub-lexical route processing, while the acquisition of lexical route processing was hindered by lower IQ and weak phonological working memory in transparent phonographic hiragana reading. For kanji reading, lower IQ and weak visuomotor processing ability hampered the learning of visually complex logographic kanji characters.     

Stimulus pairing training for Kanji reading skills in students with developmental disabilities

Japanese students with developmental disabilities often exhibit difficulties in reading, particularly in Kanji (ideogram) reading, and in acquiring the equivalence relations between pictures, written words, and sounds. Previous research suggested that one student with autism could acquire Kanji reading along with equivalence relations through stimulus pairing training. However, maintenance rates tended to be very low, possibly due to the lack of picture stimuli. In this study, we examined the acquisition and maintenance of Kanji reading skills through stimulus pairing training using corresponding pictures for six students with developmental disabilities. We prepared stimulus pairs consisting of picture stimuli that the students could name along with a corresponding Kanji character that they could not read. All students successfully acquired and maintained the Kanji reading skills through this procedure. These findings suggest that the nameability of picture stimuli in stimulus pairing training may facilitate the acquisition and maintenance of equivalence relations for reading.     

Teaching students with intellectual or developmental disabilities to write: a review of the literature

The purpose of this review was to identify effective methods for teaching writing to students with intellectual disabilities. After criteria were established, database searches and hand searches of selected peer-reviewed journals were conducted. Findings revealed a relatively small number of studies that met the criteria for inclusion. Participants, settings, research designs, independent variables, dependent variables, and results are synthesized across studies. Writing instruction effects on various written expression outcomes were aggregated by averaging percentage of non-overlapping data (PND) across studies. Findings revealed that strategy instruction was investigated more frequently than other types of approaches. Strategy instruction was consistently found to be very effective for teaching writing skills to students with intellectual disabilities. Limitations, directions for future research, and implications for practice are discussed.     

Fitness to drive with neurological disabilities

To restore the ability to drive is one aim of the rehabilitation of patients with neurological disabilities. In some instances, an evaluation is required to judge a patient's fitness to drive in today's traffic. Forty-three patients of the neurorehabilitation unit of the Valens Clinic were assessed by a standard traffic psychological test protocol and a control drive. In 88%, there was agreement between the judgments based on each procedure. Four patients had failed either the psychological tests or the control drive but not both. Six patients had failed the psychological test and the control drive. Two drove nevertheless, and three patients stopped driving. Nineteen of 32 patients cleared to drive were followed up. Eleven drove without accidents or traffic fines. The traffic psychological tests and control drive yield complementary information on the fitness to drive. However, the assessments need to be improved. New generations of interactive driving simulators may refine the fitness to drive evaluation and become useful tools in driving rehabilitation.     

Empowerment of people with developmental disabilities

People with developmental disabilities have their own life cycles and social services for them, such as therapeutic training, education, vocational training, and community care, should respect their initiative in decision-making and controlling their own lives. However, social isolation of the disabled people and their families, lack of resources, and discrimination have resulted in their disempowerment. This paper discusses the professionals' role in empowerment, focuses on social and consumer models, and emphasizes the importance of the partnership between professionals and self-help groups.     

The Mini Mental State in those with developmental disabilities

The Mini Mental State Examination is a useful screen for the detection of cognitive disorders among psychiatric patients. In the absence of a developmental disability, the inability to perform satisfactorily on the Mini Mental State (MMS) (score less than 24) is likely to be related to delirium, dementia, or affective disorders. The mildly retarded or learning disabled should perform satisfactorily (greater than 24) on the MMS but may show impairment with delirium, dementia, or affective disorders. In the absence of a psychiatric disorder, it takes moderate mental retardation (IQ less than 55) or severe reading disability with IQ less than 70 to produce an MMS score of less than 24. The MMS should not be considered a screen for mental retardation, because retarded individuals can function adequately (greater than 24) on the MMS.     

The effects of developmental quotient and diagnostic criteria on challenging behaviors in toddlers with developmental disabilities

Previous research has found that individuals with intellectual disability and/or autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and those with greater symptom severity within these diagnoses, show higher rates of aggressive/destructive behavior, stereotypic behavior, and self-injurious behavior. In this exploratory cross-sectional study, toddlers at-risk for a developmental disorder (n=1509) ranging from 17 to 36 months fell into one of three diagnostic categories: Autistic Disorder, Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Not Otherwise Specified [PDD-NOS], and atypically developing - no ASD diagnosis. Mental health professionals from EarlySteps, Louisiana's Early Intervention System, interviewed parents and guardians using the Baby and Infant Screen for Children with aUtIsm Traits (BISCUIT) -Part 3 (Matson, Boisjoli, & Wilkins, 2007) to obtain measures of challenging behaviors and the Battelle Developmental Inventory, 2nd Edition (BDI-2) (Newborg, 2005) to obtain developmental quotients (DQ). Toddlers diagnosed with Autistic Disorder or PDD-NOS showed a positive relationship between total DQ and challenging behavior; whereas, atypically developing toddlers with no ASD diagnosis showed a more adaptive, negative relationship. The DQ domains that were most influential on challenging behaviors varied by diagnosis, with communication and motor domains playing greater roles for toddlers with Autistic Disorder or PDD-NOS, and personal-social and cognitive domains playing greater roles for atypically developing toddlers with no ASD diagnosis.     

Macrocephaly in children with developmental disabilities

In a community-based study of 4,309 children with neurodevelopmental disabilities who were referred to the Institute for Child Development, Tel Aviv, Israel, 62 (1.4%) had macrocephaly (head circumference above the ninety-eighth percentile for age), of whom 42 (1%) had macrocephaly not associated with hydrocephalus. With the exception of neonatal respiratory distress the incidence of perinatal complications was not different from that in other children referred to the Institute for Child Development. In children with developmental disabilities, macrocephaly was a significant risk factor for febrile seizures (odds RATIO = 3.1, P < 0.001) and epilepsy (odds RATIO = 7.7, P < 0.001), but not for mental retardation (odds RATIO = 1.1, P = 0.78) or cerebral palsy (odds RATIO = 1.3, P = 0.67). Children with macrocephaly had a high rate of comorbid diagnosis. We conclude that in children with developmental disabilities the presence of macrocephaly even when not associated with hydrocephalus is associated with an increased risk of seizures.     

Using videoconferencing to support teachers to conduct preference assessments with students with autism and developmental disabilities

We used widely available videoconferencing equipment to support teachers to conduct preference assessments for three students with autism and developmental disabilities. Supervisors located at a university used videoconferencing equipment to collect data on students’ choice of items, the fidelity of teacher implementation of the assessment protocol, and to provide feedback to the teachers. Preference assessment results suggested a number of potentially reinforcing items for each student. In a second phase of the study, the students were given a routine classroom task to complete (i.e., clean up). The students could choose to complete the clean up task and gain access to a neutral item or one of the highly preferred items identified in the prior preference assessment. All students predominantly chose to complete the task in order to access a preferred item identified in the preference assessment. The results of this classroom intervention validated the results of the preference assessments. The findings of this study provide preliminary support for the use of videoconferencing equipment when supporting teaching personnel during common educational assessments.