Malabsorption of modified food starch (acetylated distarch phosphate) in normal infants and in 8-24-month-old toddlers with non-specific diarrhea, as influenced by sorbitol and fructose

Acetylated distarch phosphate (ADiSP) is a modified starch used in some baby foods. The bioavailability of ADiSP and a native (unmodified) starch was evaluated in 20 normal infants and 21 toddlers aged 8-24 mo with chronic non-specific diarrhea. Formulae contained 8% native or 8% modified waxy maize starch. No infant or toddler consuming Formula N (native starch) had elevated peak breath hydrogen levels (20 ppm or greater), stools clinically positive for reducing substances (0.75% or greater) or loose stools. Fourteen infants received formula M (modified starch): 2 had elevated breath hydrogen, 1 had positive stools and another had loose stools. Of the 21 toddlers fed formula M, 2 had elevated breath hydrogen, but none had positive stools or loose stools. Formula NS (native starch with 2% sorbitol) had little effect on breath hydrogen in the infants but significantly increased it in the toddlers. Formula NS produced loose stools in 2 toddlers but no clinically positive stools in any infant or toddler. Formula MS (modified starch with 2% sorbitol) elevated breath hydrogen in 3 infants and 8 toddlers, and produced positive stools in 2 infants and 2 toddlers, and loose stools in 4 infants and 7 toddlers. Formula MSF (modified starch with 2% sorbitol and 5% fructose) elevated breath hydrogen in 7 infants and 10 toddlers, positive stools in 7 infants and 6 toddlers, and loose stools or diarrhea in 7 infants and 11 toddlers.

Conclusion: ADiSP modified starch can increase breath hydrogen and produce loose stools. Sorbitol and fructose aggravate the malabsorption, in some cases leading to frank diarrhea.     

Clinical consequences of replacing milk with yogurt in persistent infantile diarrhea]

Persistent diarrhea is an episode of diarrhea that begins acutely but lasts longer than expected for this usually self-limited disease. Treatment of this ill-defined syndrome is not well standardized but immediate intervention is required to minimize the risk of malnutrition with its various consequences. This randomized clinical trial was undertaken to evaluate the clinical efficacy of substituting yogurt for milk, as the only treatment. After a one to two-day observation period during which a standard milk diet was given, 78 children aged 3 to 36 months with confirmed persistent diarrhea of more than 15 days but less than one month duration and negative tests for fecal blood were fed either milk (infant formula) or yogurt (infant formula fermented with Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus). At inclusion both groups were comparable for age, nutritional status, diarrhea, and lactose hydrogen breath test results. Clinical treatment failure (weight loss greater than 5% in one day or persistent diarrhea after 5 days) was significantly less common in children fed yogurt (15 +/- 6%) than in children fed milk (45 +/- 8%). The beneficial effects of feeding yogurt were apparent within 48 hours in 67 +/- 8% of infants. In conclusion, these data confirm the clinical efficacy of substituting yogurt for milk in young children with persistent diarrhea. They also suggest that yogurt may be a good alternative for the initial treatment of persistent diarrhea.     

Efficacy of zinc-fortified oral rehydration solution in 6- to 35-month-old children with acute diarrhea

OBJECTIVE: To determine the efficacy of zinc-fortified oral rehydration salts solution (ORS) in comparison to ORS without zinc in 6- to 35-month-old urban children with acute diarrhea not sick enough to be hospitalized. DESIGN: Double-blind, randomized, controlled trial. METHODS: Children (n = 1219) with acute diarrhea were randomly assigned to one of 3 groups. The first group received a zinc syrup (15 mg zinc to 6- to 11-month-old children and 30 mg to 12- to 35-month-old children), the second group received zinc premixed with ORS (40 mg/L), and the control children received ORS only. Households were visited twice weekly until recovery. RESULTS: The total number of stools was lower in the zinc-ORS group (rate ratio, 0.83; 95% CI, 0.71-0.96), as was the proportion of children with watery stools (odds ratio, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.39-0.95), compared with the control group; there was no significant effect on diarrheal duration. ORS intake and proportion of children with vomiting were not significantly different between the zinc-ORS and control groups. The zinc syrup group had lower diarrheal duration (relative hazards, 0.89; 95% CI, 0.80-0.99) and total stools (rate ratio, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.70-0.77) than control children. CONCLUSIONS: Zinc-ORS was moderately efficacious in reducing the severity of acute diarrhea without increasing vomiting or reducing ORS intake.     

Secondary carbohydrate intolerance during diarrhea-clinical features,detection and management

Of 110 cases having watery diarrhea,sugar intolerance was observed in 75 subjects (68%), majority of whom (97%) were below 2 years. While nutritional status was not associated with the occurrence of sugar intolerance, children from rural areas had a higher incidence than urban children. Stools in children with sugar intolerance were watery, moderate to large in quantity, often explosive with a sour odour, had a pH of 6 or less and were positive for sugar. Lactose with galactose andlor glucose were the most common sugars on stool chromatography, occurring in 56% of the cases. All 75 cases of sugar intolerance had monosaccharides in stool chromatograms. Chromatography often was not helpful in pinpointing the offending sugar and did not correlate well with clinical responses. Among children with sugar intolerance continued on breast or cow’s milk (control diet) twothirds responded, and the remaining responded to lactose-free milk (LFM). LFM was found effective in cases with sugar intolerance. Failures to it were due to feeding of breast or cow’s milk. LFM was required for 3–4 days for controlling diarrhea. Failures to control diet had a significantly longer duration of intravenous fluid treatment and hospital stay than responders. However, as failure to respond to control diet cannot be predicted at the time of admission, use of lactose-free formula may be indicated for the routine treatment of sugar intolerance.     

Probiotic Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 versus placebo for treating diarrhea of greater than 4 days duration in infants and toddlers

BACKGROUND: Administering probiotics can prevent or cure some forms of diarrhea. The efficacy of probiotic Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 (EcN) in infants and toddlers with diarrhea >4 days was tested by a double-blind trial. METHODS: One hundred fifty-one children aged 1-47 months with nonspecific diarrhea were randomized to receive either EcN suspension (N = 75) or placebo (N = 76). Diarrhea had to meet the following definition: >3 watery or loose nonbloody stools in 24 hours of a diarrheal episode persisting for >4 consecutive days but < or =14 days. All children were well nourished or only moderately malnourished, mildly dehydrated, and received oral rehydration at study commencement. They were treated orally with 1-3 mL EcN suspension (1 mL contains 10 viable cells) or placebo daily for 21 days. Primary objective was to confirm a better response rate (reduction of daily stool frequency to < or =3 watery or loose stools over > or =4 days) with EcN. RESULTS: The 7-day response was higher for the EcN group than placebo (EcN 78.7%, placebo 59.2%). Significant differences were observed on days 14 (EcN 93.3%, placebo 65.8%, P = 0.0017) and 21 (EcN 98.7%, placebo 71.1%, P < 0.001). Kaplan-Meier survival analysis resulted in a significant difference of 3.3 days between the groups (P < 0.0001); median time to response for EcN was 2.4 and 5.7 for placebo. EcN was safe and well tolerated. CONCLUSIONS: In the conditions of this trial EcN was a suitable remedy for diarrhea >4 days in young children.     

Hemolytic uremic syndrome and diarrhea associated with Escherichia coli O157:H7 in a day care center

Three cases of hemolytic uremic syndrome with bloody diarrhea occurred during an outbreak of diarrheal illness in children aged 4 months to 9 years who attended a day care center. Thirty-six (34%) of 107 had diarrhea (three or more loose or watery stools in 24 hours) lasting greater than or equal to 3 days. Thirty-one (48%) of 64 children younger than 4 years of age but only (12%) of 43 in the older classes became ill (relative risk 4.0, P less than 0.001). Eleven (31%) of the 36 children with diarrhea had blood in their stools. Sequential movement of illness from class to class was consistent with person-to-person spread. Ten (18%) of 56 family members of ill children but only one of 45 family members of well children younger than 4 years of age developed a diarrheal illness (P less than 0.05). Escherichia coli O157:H7 was detected in two of eight stool specimens from children who had bloody diarrhea (one with hemolytic uremic syndrome), two of seven with nonbloody diarrhea, and none of nine who remained well. All three stool specimens obtained at less than or equal to 6 days compared with one of nine obtained at greater than 6 days after onset yielded this organism (P less than 0.02). E. coli O157:H7 can cause hemolytic uremic syndrome and both nonbloody and bloody diarrhea, and can spread within families and through modes other than foodborne transmission.     

Effect of protein source and iron content of infant formula on stool characteristics

Formula-fed, term infants were evaluated in two studies that assessed the influence on stool characteristics of protein source and iron content of the formula. Parental observations of infants' stool characteristics were recorded on standard forms. Green was the primary stool color for infants receiving whey-predominant formula containing iron at 12 mg/L. A low-iron (1.5 mg/L), whey-predominant formula produced yellow stools. A casein-predominant, iron-fortified (12 mg/L) formula produced primarily yellow or brown stools, although many of the infants fed this formula also had green stools. Soft stools were common in infants fed either whey- or casein-predominant formulas. However, more infants receiving whey-predominant formulas passed watery or slimy stools than did infants receiving casein-predominant formulas. We conclude that green stools in the absence of signs of disease should be considered a normal variation of stool color.     

Dietary management of persistent diarrhea: comparison of a traditional rice-lentil based diet with soy formula

Recent studies have indicated that enteral diets can play an important role in the treatment of persistent diarrhea. Khitchri, a local weaning food in Pakistan, is composed of rice and lentils, which have previously been shown to be well tolerated in many children with acute diarrhea. The effectiveness of a khitchri and yogurt (KY) diet, which is inexpensive and widely available in Pakistan, was studied. One hundred two weaned boys (6 to 36 months old) with persistent diarrhea were randomly assigned to receive either soy formula (group A) or the KY diet (group B) for 14 days. Group A also received the KY diet in addition to formula for days 8 through 14. Twenty-nine children did not complete the study because of severe infection (13) or their family's decision to leave the study early (9 in group A and 7 in group B). Sixty-six children successfully completed the study protocol; there were five clinical failures in group A and two in group B. On a comparable caloric intake, there was a significantly lower stool volume (group B: 38 +/- 16 [mean +/- SD] vs group A: 64 +/- 75 g/kg per day, P less than .05) and frequency (B: 4.4 +/- 2.0 vs. A: 6.6 +/- 4.2 stools per day, P less than .005) in children fed KY during the first week of therapy. Group B children also had a significantly greater weight gain than children in group A during the first week (B: 468 +/- 373 g/wk vs A: 68 +/- 286 g/wk, P less than .005).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Evaluation of a maize-cowpea-palm oil diet for the dietary management of Nigerian children with acute, watery diarrhea

A randomized clinical trial was carried out to compare a locally available maize-cowpea-palm oil diet (group MCP) with a commercially produced lactose-free, soy protein isolate formula (group SF) for the dietary management of 69 Nigerian boys, 6–24 months of age, hospitalized for acute, watery diarrhea. Although the treatment groups were generally similar initially, the children in group SF had slightly lower mean weight-for-age z scores ( p = O.OS), lower serum bicarbonate levels ( p = 0.04) and greater stool outputs during the period of rehydration before the diets were initiated ( p = 0.01). Rates of treatment failure in group MCP (5.7%) and group SF (8.8%) were similar ( p = 0.67). There were no significant differences in the adjusted mean stool outputs by study group on days 1–5, but the children in group SF had slightly lower fecal weights on day 6 ( p = 0.05). Children in group MCP had a substantially reduced duration of liquid stool excretion (estimated median duration 42 h versus 140 h; p < 0.001). On the other hand, children in group SF consumed considerably more of their diet, had greater net absorption of macronutrients and greater rates of weight gain than those in group MCP. We conclude that children can safely consume the MCP diet during acute, watery diarrhea without increasing their risk of treatment failure or augmenting stool output. However, the diet may not be adequate as a sole source of nutrients beyond the period of acute illness.     

Chronic diarrhea of infancy: nonbeta islet cell hyperplasia.

The case of an infant who developed refractory watery diarrhea at the age of 2 weeks is described. Diarrhea was secretory in type, stool weight on no oral intake was 400 to 600 gm daily. A vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)-producing tumor was suspected. At the age of 7 1/2 months an exploratory laparotomy revealed nonbeta islet cell hyperplasia of the pancreas. VIP levels were elevated in plasma and pancreatic tissue. After 95% pancreatectomy, plasma VIP level dropped to normal. Hypokalemia, described in adult patients with VIP-producing pancreatic tumors and refractory watery diarrhea, was not a significant problem in this infant. This is the first report on the association of refractory watery diarrhea with elevated levels of plasma VIP and pancreatic islet nonbeta cell hyperplasia in the pediatric age group.     

Lactobacillus GG in the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhea in children.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to determine the efficacy of Lactobacillus casei sps. rhamnosus (Lactobacillus GG) (LGG) in reducing the incidence of antibiotic-associated diarrhea when coadministered with an oral antibiotic in children with acute infectious disorders. STUDY DESIGN: Two hundred two children between 6 months and 10 years of age were enrolled; 188 completed all phases of the protocol. LGG, 1 x 10(10) - 2 x 10(10) colony forming units per day, or comparable placebo was administered in a double-blind randomized trial to children receiving oral antibiotic therapy in an outpatient setting. The primary caregiver was questioned every 3 days regarding the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms, predominantly stool frequency and consistency, through telephone contact by blinded investigators. RESULTS: Twenty-five placebo-treated but only 7 LGG-treated patients had diarrhea as defined by liquid stools numbering 2 or greater per day. Lactobacillus GG overall significantly reduced stool frequency and increased stool consistency during antibiotic therapy by the tenth day compared with the placebo group. CONCLUSION: Lactobacillus GG reduces the incidence of antibiotic-associated diarrhea in children treated with oral antibiotics for common childhood infections.     

新生儿葡萄糖/半乳糖吸收不良症2例病例报告并文献复习

目的 探讨以新生儿反复腹泻为主要临床表现的SLC5A1基因致病变异所致葡萄糖/半乳糖吸收不良症的临床特征及其遗传学特点。方法 报告2例新生儿SLC5A1基因复合杂合变异致葡萄糖/半乳糖吸收不良症患儿的临床表现、实验室检查及基因检测结果,并对国内外数据库中有具体临床信息和基因检测结果的相关文献进行复习。结果 2例患儿生后即出现反复腹泻,伴脱水、高钠血症和代谢性酸中毒。全外显子组测序检测到2例患儿均携带SLC5A1基因的复合杂合变异,例1(男)为c.325dupG和c.1107_1109delAGT变异,例2(女)及有相似病史的哥哥均为c.781G>A和c.1298T>C变异。检索PubMed、中国知网、万方和维普数据库,共检索到具有临床资料和基因突变分析的18篇病例报道,与本文合并后共报道74例葡萄糖/半乳糖吸收不良患者。新生儿期最显著的临床表现为腹泻(100%)和脱水(89.2%),换果糖基质奶粉或无碳水化合物配方奶喂养后大便正常。该病患儿通常生后2~5 d即出现腹泻症状,但是亦存在家族内异质性及较晚发病的病例。结论 对于生后不久出现水样便和脱水的患儿,需考虑葡萄糖/半乳糖吸收不良症的可能,并尽早完善基因检测,有助于早期诊断和治疗。     

新生儿葡萄糖/半乳糖吸收不良症2例病例报告并文献复习

目的 探讨以新生儿反复腹泻为主要临床表现的SLC5A1基因致病变异所致葡萄糖/半乳糖吸收不良症的临床特征及其遗传学特点。方法 报告2例新生儿SLC5A1基因复合杂合变异致葡萄糖/半乳糖吸收不良症患儿的临床表现、实验室检查及基因检测结果,并对国内外数据库中有具体临床信息和基因检测结果的相关文献进行复习。结果 2例患儿生后即出现反复腹泻,伴脱水、高钠血症和代谢性酸中毒。全外显子组测序检测到2例患儿均携带SLC5A1基因的复合杂合变异,例1(男)为c.325dupG和c.1107_1109delAGT变异,例2(女)及有相似病史的哥哥均为c.781G>A和c.1298T>C变异。检索PubMed、中国知网、万方和维普数据库,共检索到具有临床资料和基因突变分析的18篇病例报道,与本文合并后共报道74例葡萄糖/半乳糖吸收不良患者。新生儿期最显著的临床表现为腹泻(100%)和脱水(89.2%),换果糖基质奶粉或无碳水化合物配方奶喂养后大便正常。该病患儿通常生后2~5 d即出现腹泻症状,但是亦存在家族内异质性及较晚发病的病例。结论 对于生后不久出现水样便和脱水的患儿,需考虑葡萄糖/半乳糖吸收不良症的可能,并尽早完善基因检测,有助于早期诊断和治疗。     

Use of probiotics in HIV-infected children: a randomized double-blind controlled study

HIV/AIDS is an infection characterized by immune cell dysfunction and subsequent immunodeficiency, as well as intestinal disorder. Probiotics are live microbial feed supplements that beneficially affect the host animal by improving intestinal microbial balance and promoting health benefits. The goals of this study were to determine whether the use of probiotics could improve the immune response determined by CD4 cells mm(-3) counts and reduce liquid stool episodes. A randomized double-blind controlled trial with 77 HIV-infected children (2-12 years), divided into two groups: one receiving probiotics (formula containing Bifidobacterium bifidum with Streptococcus thermophilus -2.5 x 10(10) colony forming units) and the other, a standard formula (control group), for 2 months. The CD4 counts (cells mm(-3)) were collected at the beginning and end of the study. The quality and number of stools were assessed by a questionnaire (watery to normal stool consistency). There was an increase in the mean CD4 count in the probiotics group (791 cells mm(-3)) and a small decrease in the control group (538 cells mm(-3)). The change from baseline in mean CD4 cell count was +118 cells mm(-3) vs. -42 cells mm(-3) for children receiving the probiotic formula and control formula, respectively (p = 0.049). A similar reduction in liquid stool consistency in both the groups (p < 0.06), with a slight enhancement in the probiotics group, was observed, but without significant difference (p < 0.522). The incidence of loose-soft stools showed a small decrease in both groups (p < 0.955) and there was an increase in the incidence of normal stool consistency in both the groups (p < 0.01). Our study showed that probiotics have immunostimulatory properties and might be helpful in the treatment of HIV-infected children.     

Cryptosporidiosis outbreak in a day-care center

An outbreak of diarrhea occurred in a day-care center in San Marcos, Tex, in August 1984. At the time of this study, the center was caring for 81 children aged 2 months through 5 years. A single stool specimen was collected from each of 50 children (62%). Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia lamblia cysts were each identified in stool specimens from 18 children. Three children had both parasites present in the same stool specimen. Echovirus 30 was identified in 19 of 25 stools cultured. Although three pathogens were circulating simultaneously in this group of children, only the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts was associated with the occurrence of a diarrheal illness. Cryptosporidium may be a common cause of diarrhea in children who attend day-care centers.     

Amylase-resistant starch as adjunct to oral rehydration therapy in children with diarrhea

BACKGROUND: Oral rehydration solution (ORS) for treatment of diarrhea relies on enhancement of small intestinal sodium and fluid absorption to correct dehydration. Amylase-resistant starch added to ORS significantly reduced the duration and severity of diarrhea in adults with cholera, presumably by generation of short-chain fatty acids in the colon and enhancement of colonic sodium and fluid absorption. The present study was initiated to determine whether addition of amylase-resistant starch to standard World Health Organization glucose-ORS (G-ORS) would reduce the duration of diarrhea and fecal fluid losses in children with acute diarrhea. METHODS: One hundred eighty-three children (6 months to 3 years) with acute watery diarrhea were randomized to receive either standard treatment with G-ORS or G-ORS with additional amylase-resistant starch, HAMS (HAMS-ORS, 50g/L). Stool weight and consistency were monitored serially until development of formed stool or development of treatment failure defined as either the need for unscheduled intravenous fluid therapy or diarrhea longer than 72 hours. RESULTS: Five of the subjects were lost to follow up. In 178 remaining children (87 HAMS-ORS and 91 G-ORS) with evaluable data, time from enrolment to last unformed stool was significantly less in children receiving HAMS-ORS (median, 6.75 hours; 95% confidence interval, 4.27-9.22) than in children treated with G-ORS (12.80 hours, 8.69-16.91) (P = 0.0292). Time to first formed stool was also significantly shorter in children receiving HAMS-ORS (median, 18.25 hours; 95% confidence interval, 13.09-23.41) compared with children receiving G-ORS (median, 21.50 hours; 95% confidence interval, 17.26-25.74) (P = 0.0440). The total amount of ORS consumed was similar in both groups. There was a trend toward lower mean stool weight in first 24 hours (P = 0.0752) as well as total diarrheal stool weight (P = 0.0926) in patients in the HAMS group compared with the G-ORS group. CONCLUSION: In children with acute diarrhea, the addition of amylase-resistant starch to glucose ORS significantly shortened duration of diarrhea compared with standard treatment.     

Clinical evaluation of the addition of lyophilized, heat-killed Lactobacillus acidophilus LB to oral rehydration therapy in the treatment of acute diarrhea in children

BACKGROUND: Addition of a medication to the World Health Organization protocol for treatment of acute diarrhea in children is controversial. In this trial, the clinical efficacy of a medication (Lactéol Fort sachets; Laboratoire du Lactéol du Docteur Boucard, Houdan France) containing lyophilized heat-killed Lactobacillus acidophilus LB was assessed as an adjunct to oral rehydration therapy. METHODS: Children aged 3 to 24 months with acute diarrhea and mild or moderate dehydration were enrolled in the study. Children received oral rehydration therapy for the first 4 hours. After this first rehydration phase, undiluted milk formula or breast milk was fed alternately with oral rehydration solution. Children were fed rice gruel as tolerated. They received either one sachet containing 10 billion of lyophilized heat-killed L. acidophilus LB or placebo at admission and at 12-hour intervals for five doses. RESULTS: Seventy-three children (37 L. acidophilus LB, 36 placebo) were enrolled, of whom 40 (17 L. acidophilus LB, 23 placebo) received an antibiotic before inclusion. Rotavirus was identified in approximately 50% of the children in each group. After 24 hours of treatment, the number of rotavirus-positive children with watery stools was significantly lower (p = 0.012) in the L. acidophilus LB group. Mean duration of diarrhea was decreased (p = 0.034) with L. acidophilus LB (43.4 hours) versus placebo (57.0 hours). This decreased duration was particularly marked in children with no antibiotic therapy before inclusion (31.1 hours): 42.9 hours for the L. acidophilus LB group versus 74.0 hours for the placebo group (p = 0.016). CONCLUSIONS: Addition of L. acidophilus LB to oral rehydration therapy was effective in the treatment of children with acute diarrhea by decreasing the duration of diarrhea.     

Diarrhea associated with adherent enteropathogenic Escherichia coli in an infant and toddler center, Seattle, Washington

During November 1983, the Seattle-King County Department of Public Health investigated an outbreak of diarrhea associated with enteropathogenic Escherichia coli, serogroup 0111:K58, in an infant and toddler day-care center. Of the 25 children in the center, ranging in age from 4 to 30 months (median age 11 months), diarrhea occurred in 14 characterized by watery, greenish stools. The median duration of diarrhea was 12 days. Two of the ill children were hospitalized because of severe dehydration. Stool cultures from the children diagnosed initially did not yield the common bacterial pathogens, parasites, or rotavirus. Stool cultures from 11 of 14 ill children and two of 11 well children (P less than .005), however, yielded an E coli serogroup, 0111:K58, which was not invasive or toxigenic by standard tests. The source of the organism was not identified. Although this organism has been recognized as a cause of diarrhea in newborn nurseries, this is the first published report of a documented outbreak of enteropathogenic E coli-induced diarrhea in a day-care center in the United States.     

Standardizing the assessment of diarrhea in clinical trials: results of an interobserver agreement study

Interobserver agreement was determined between nurses and parents using a standard method of assessing diarrheal stools. The study population consisted of patients less than three years of age hospitalized at The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada. Stool samples were independently categorized by observer pairs within minutes of being obtained from children with and without diarrhea as: watery—liquid, no solid elements; loose—liquid with solid elements; pasty—like a paste; formed—normal solid. Watery and loose stools were regarded as abnormal and indicative of diarrhea. Teaching sessions were conducted for nursing shifts, while parents were instructed prior to each observation. In the nurses' agreement study, each stool specimen was examined by the nurse providing care to the patient from whom the stool was obtained and a nurse not looking after the patient. Parents' assessments were also compared with nurses' assessments. Finally, parents' assessments were compared with each other. In the first group, agreement beyond chance for presence or absence of diarrhea measured by kappa was 0.78 (95% confidence intervals (CI) 0.55–1.0). The observed agreement on 148 pairs of observations between parents and nurses was 75% (kappa = 0.5; 95% CI 0.36–0.64). Between-parent agreement on 30 other paired observations was 77% (kappa = 0.54; 95% CI 0.24–0.84). Teaching parents about the four categories is a potentially useful adjunct for assessment of diarrheal stools in children.     

Nutritional management of persistent diarrhea: factors predicting clinical outcome

In a prospective study we randomized 102 male children (age 6-36 months) with persistent diarrhea to receive a traditional rice-lentil (Khitchri) diet and yogurt (K-Y) or a soy formula (alone for seven days and then in combination with K-Y for seven days). Of 73 children satisfying the study criteria, 66 were successfully treated and there were 7 treatment failures. There was poor concordance between parental accounts of severity of diarrhea or vomiting and that observed after admission. Significant risk factors associated with treatment failure included younger age ( p <0.005) and vomiting at presentation ( p <0.02). The greatest number of risk factors associated with delayed recovery (<10 days) were identified during an initial evaluation period (the first 8 h after admission). These included greater severity of watery diarrhoea ( p <0.01) and increased ORS intake ( p <0.02). Our data suggest that an initial evaluation period, including objective observations, may identify children with persistent diarrhea who are at greatest need of hospitalization.