Morphological comparison of different protocols of skeletal muscle remobilization in rats after hindlimb suspension

The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the efficacy of different remobilization protocols in different skeletal muscles considering the changes induced by hindlimb suspension of the tail. Thirty-six female Wistar rats were divided into six groups: control I, control II, suspended, suspended free, suspended trained on a declined treadmill and suspended trained on a flat treadmill. Fragments of soleus and tibialis anterior (TA) muscle were frozen and processed by different histochemical methods. The suspended soleus showed a significant increase in the proportional number of intermediate/hybrid fibers and a decrease in the number of type I fibers. Some of these changes proved to be reversible after remobilization. The three remobilization programs led to the recovery of both the proportional number of fibers and their size. The TA muscle presented a significant increase in the number and size of type I fibers and a cell size reduction of type IIB fibers, which were recovered after training on a declined treadmill and free movement. Especially regarding the soleus, the present findings indicate that, among the protocols, training on a declined treadmill was found to induce changes of a more regenerative nature, seemingly indicating a better tissue restructuring after the suspension procedure.     

A comparison of the effects of unloading in young adult and aged skeletal muscle

PURPOSE: The objective of this investigation was to determine whether morphological adaptations to unloading are different in young adult and aged skeletal muscle. METHODS: Sixteen young adult (8-month) Fischer 344 rats were randomly assigned to either a control or hindlimb suspension (HS) group. Sixteen aged (22-month) rats were similarly assigned to either control or HS conditions. After 4 wk, animals were euthanized and soleus and EDL muscles were histochemically analyzed. RESULTS: In controls, neither the soleus nor EDL displayed age-related differences in fiber size or composition. Unloading elicited fiber atrophy of the soleus in both age groups but to a greater extent (P < 0.05) in aged rats. Only in aged solei were HS-induced fiber type conversions (Type I --> II) detected. In the EDL, unloading caused atrophy only among the aged. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that aged muscle experiences greater detriment as a result of unloading. This may have important consequences in the aged because they are more likely to be restricted to bed rest or limb immobilization due to falls and other afflictions.     

Substance P effects on developing thymocytes in hindlimb unloaded rats

INTRODUCTION: The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of substance P (SP) on the immune system in a condition similar to microgravity. We analyzed immune disturbances caused by subjecting Fischer 344 rats to a 45 degrees antiorthostatic suspension technique, otherwise known as the hindlimb unloading (HU) model. METHODS: Four groups of rats were assigned to either the prone control non-substance P group (P-NSP), prone control substance P group (P-SP), hindlimb unloaded non-substance P (HU-NSP) or the hindlimb unloaded substance P group (HU-SP). SP was administered at 10 ml of a 1 micromol x L(-1) concentration for 15 min x d(-1). HU and SP exposure for all groups lasted 16 d. After 16 d, 500 microl of blood was obtained to assay for both T-cell phenotype and corticosterone (CS) levels. Thymus lobes were excised in order to examine T-cell phenotype. Thymocytes were counted and stained for lymphocyte markers (CD4, CD8, and CD3). An analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was used to determine significance between groups (p < or = 0.05). RESULTS: HU-NSP rats showed a decrease in thymic CD4+CD8 +/- cells from 85.51 +/- 1.9% to 62.06 +/- 1.9% when compared with P-NSP rats. SP reversed these effects and returned CD4+CD8+ cells to control levels (76.60 +/- 1.9%). DISCUSSION: Daily SP treatment was found to reverse the deleterious effects caused by HU and corticosterone in rat thymic immune cells. SP could prove to be an effective means for keeping the immune system functioning at normal levels in microgravity, allowing astronauts to stay in space longer and maintain a more productive immune system.     

Ibuprofen inhibits skeletal muscle hypertrophy in rats

PURPOSE: We sought to determine whether cyclooxygenase (COX) activity is necessary for overload-induced growth of adult rat skeletal muscle, and whether nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity is involved in upregulation of COX messenger RNA (mRNA) expression in skeletal muscle. METHODS: Unilateral surgical removal of the gastrocnemius and soleus was performed on the right hindlimb of 16 female Sprague-Dawley rats (approximately 230 g) to induce chronic overload (OL) of the plantaris for 14 d, with sham surgeries performed on the contralateral leg as a normally loaded (NL) control. Half of the rats were treated with the nonspecific COX inhibitor, ibuprofen (0.2 mg.mL(-1) in drinking water; approximately 20 mg.kg(-1).d(-1)). In a second experiment, the plantaris was unilaterally overloaded for 5 or 14 d in male rats (approximately 350 g; N = 16 rats per time point) and half of the animals were treated with the NOS inhibitor, L-NAME (0.75 mg.mL(-1) in drinking water; approximately 90 mg.kg(-1).d(-1)). RESULTS: Ibuprofen treatment inhibited plantaris hypertrophy by approximately 50% (P < 0.05) following 14 d of OL, as did L-NAME treatment (P < 0.05). COX-1 and COX-2 mRNA did not differ between any groups at 5 d. At 14 d, however, L-NAME caused a 30-fold increase in plantaris COX-1 mRNA expression independent of loading condition. Additionally, OL induced a 20-fold increase in COX-2 mRNA expression compared with NL (P < 0.05) at 14 d, without affecting COX-1 mRNA level. L-NAME treatment significantly inhibited OL-induced expression of COX-2 mRNA. CONCLUSION: COX activity is important for in vivo muscle hypertrophy, and plantaris overload is associated with NOS activity-dependent COX-2 expression.     

Training in hypoxia and its effects on skeletal muscle tissue

It is well established that local muscle tissue hypoxia is an important consequence and possibly a relevant adaptive signal of endurance exercise training in humans. It has been reasoned that it might be advantageous to increase this exercise stimulus by working in hypoxia. However, as long-term exposure to severe hypoxia has been shown to be detrimental to muscle tissue, experimental protocols were developed that expose subjects to hypoxia only for the duration of the exercise session and allow recovery in normoxia (live low–train high or hypoxic training). This overview reports data from 27 controlled studies using some implementation of hypoxic training paradigms. Hypoxia exposure varied between 2300 and 5700 m and training duration ranged from 10 days to 8 weeks. A similar number of studies was carried out on untrained and on trained subjects. Muscle structural, biochemical and molecular findings point to a specific role of hypoxia in endurance training. However, based on the available data on global estimates of performance capacity such as maximal oxygen uptake (V_O2max) and maximal power output ( P _max), hypoxia as a supplement to training is not consistently found to be of advantage for performance at sea level. There is some evidence mainly from studies on untrained subjects for an advantage of hypoxic training for performance at altitude. Live low–train high may be considered when altitude acclimatization is not an option.     

Eccentric exercise prior to hindlimb unloading attenuated reloading muscle damage in rats

INTRODUCTION: Antigravity muscles that are reloaded subsequent to hindlimb unloading (HU) are prone to injury. Similarities exist between muscle damage elicited from HU and subsequent reloading and damage induced by eccentric exercise (EE). Conditioning bouts of EE reduce muscle damage following a repeat bout of EE. Since damage to reloaded skeletal muscle is comparable to damage observed after EE, the mechanisms of damage are presumably similar. Therefore, EE prior to HU may attenuate reloading muscle damage. This study evaluated the effects of prior EE on rat soleus muscles (SOL) subsequent to 7 d of HU and 16-19 h of reloading. METHODS: Sprague Dawley rats were randomly assigned to the following groups: eccentric exercise + hindlimb unloading + reloading (EEHUR; n = 9); hindlimb unloading + reloading (HUR; n = 10); eccentric exercise (EE; n = 12), or control (CON; n = 12). The exercise protocol was performed 5 d x wk(-1) for 2 wks followed by HU and reloading. RESULTS: Fiber areas were lower in both suspended groups vs. the EE and CON groups. There was no difference in percent interstitial area among groups. However, percent myofibrillar damage was higher in the HUR group vs. all other groups. Further, glucose-6-phospate dehydrogenase activity, an indicator of muscle damage, was higher in the HUR group compared with the EE and CON groups. CONCLUSION: These results provide some evidence that prior EE reduced muscle damage subsequent to HU and reloading. Therefore, EE may prove effective in minimizing recovery time in individuals suffering from muscle damage following periods of bed rest and spaceflight.     

pH control in rat skeletal muscle during exercise,recovery from exercise,and acute respiratory acidosis

We used ³¹P magnetic resonance spectroscopy to compare the response of rat skeletal muscle to three kinds of proton load. During exercise (tetanic sciatic nerve stimulation), protons from lactic acid were buffered passively and consumed by net hydrolysis of phosphocreatine (PCr). During recovery from exercise, the pH-dependent efflux of protons produced by PCr resynthesis could be partially inhibited by amiloride or 4,4′-diisothiocyanostilbene-2,2′-disulphonate (DIDS), implicating both sodiudproton and bicarbonatelchloride exchange, but was not inhibited by simultaneous respiratory acidosis. In early recovery, up to 30% of proton efflux was mediated by lactatelproton cotransport. During acute respiratory acidosis at rest, the eventual change in muscle pH was consistent with passive buffering and was unaffected by amiloride or DIDS, implying no significant contribution of proton fluxes.     

Cardiac and skeletal muscle effects of electrical weapons

Conducted Electrical Weapons (CEWs) are being used as the preferred non-lethal force option for police and special forces worldwide. This new technology challenges an exposed opponent similarly to the way they would be challenged by physical exercise combined with emotional stress. While adrenergic and metabolic effects have been meta-analyzed and reviewed, there has been no systematic review of the effects of CEWs on skeletal and cardiac muscle. A systematic and careful search of the MedLine database was performed to find publications describing pathophysiological cardiac and skeletal muscle effects of CEWs. For skeletal muscle effects, we analyzed all publications providing changes in creatine kinase, myoglobin and potassium. For cardiac effects, we analyzed reported troponin changes and arrhythmias related to short dart-to-heart-distances. Conducted electrical weapons satisfy all relevant electrical safety standards and there are, to date, no proven electrocution incidents caused by CEWs. A potential cardiovascular risk has been recognized by some of the experimental animal data. The effects on the heart appear to be limited to instances when there is a short dart-to-heart-distance. The effect on the skeletal muscle system appears to be negligible. A responsible use of a CEW on a healthy adult, within the guidelines proposed by the manufacturer, does not imply a significant health risk for that healthy adult.     

The mechanisms of massage and effects on performance, muscle recovery and injury prevention

Many coaches, athletes and sports medicine personnel hold the belief, based on observations and experiences, that massage can provide several benefits to the body such as increased blood flow, reduced muscle tension and neurological excitability, and an increased sense of well-being. Massage can produce mechanical pressure, which is expected to increase muscle compliance resulting in increased range of joint motion, decreased passive stiffness and decreased active stiffness (biomechanical mechanisms). Mechanical pressure might help to increase blood flow by increasing the arteriolar pressure, as well as increasing muscle temperature from rubbing. Depending on the massage technique, mechanical pressure on the muscle is expected to increase or decrease neural excitability as measured by the Hoffman reflex (neurological mechanisms). Changes in parasympathetic activity (as measured by heart rate, blood pressure and heart rate variability) and hormonal levels (as measured by cortisol levels) following massage result in a relaxation response (physiological mechanisms). A reduction in anxiety and an improvement in mood state also cause relaxation (psychological mechanisms) after massage. Therefore, these benefits of massage are expected to help athletes by enhancing performance and reducing injury risk. However, limited research has investigated the effects of pre-exercise massage on performance and injury prevention. Massage between events is widely investigated because it is believed that massage might help to enhance recovery and prepare athletes for the next event. Unfortunately, very little scientific data has supported this claim. The majority of research on psychological effects of massage has concluded that massage produces positive effects on recovery (psychological mechanisms). Post-exercise massage has been shown to reduce the severity of muscle soreness but massage has no effects on muscle functional loss. Notwithstanding the belief that massage has benefits for athletes, the effects of different types of massage (e.g. petrissage, effleurage, friction) or the appropriate timing of massage (pre-exercise vs post-exercise) on performance, recovery from injury, or as an injury prevention method are not clear. Explanations are lacking, as the mechanisms of each massage technique have not been widely investigated. Therefore, this article discusses the possible mechanisms of massage and provides a discussion of the limited evidence of massage on performance, recovery and muscle injury prevention. The limitations of previous research are described and further research is recommended.     

Metabolic effects of anabolic steroid on skeletal muscle.

The purposes of this investigation were to examine the effects of anabolic steroid treatment on protein synthesis in skeletal muscle and on steroid receptors. The experiments were conducted with 230 male albino rats maintained on a diet containing 20% protein. Anabolic steroids (methandrostenolone, methylandrostendiole, and Retabolil) were injected in doses of 0.5 mg/kg body weight. The animals were examined at rest and after swimming exercise of 15 min duration. Quadriceps and gastrocnemius muscle were used for analysis in all experiments. Protein synthesis was studied by means of 14C-leucine incorporation. It was found that anabolic steroid treatment resulted in an increased content of skeletal muscle protein: myosin, myofibrillar, and sarcoplasmic fractions. The activity of RNA-polymerase in skeletal muscle nuclei was increased. The results indicated that in skeletal muscle there were androgen receptors which were binding sites for 3H-testosterone and anabolic steroids. A model for the anabolic steroid action on the regulation of protein synthesis in skeletal muscle was proposed.     

Effect of resistance training on muscle fatigue and recovery in intact rats

PURPOSE: To examine the effect of resistance training on muscle fatigue from intermittent contractions and subsequent recovery in intact rats. METHODS: By using electrical stimulation, plantar flexor muscles were trained with eccentric and concentric contractions (5 x 10 repetitions, 5 d x wk(-1) for 6 wk) during ankle rotations. By using nerve stimulation, concentric contractions (40) imposed on isometric contractions (stimulation time, 1.9 s; rest period, 13.6 s; intermittent contractions) induced fatigue. During recovery, equivalent contractions were used every 5 min for 30 min. RESULTS: Training increased isometric forces (19% and 23% at ankle positions of 1.57 and 0.70 rad), but muscle weights were not changed. After training, smaller declines in isometric (control, 68.9+/-1.4%; trained, 58.8+/-2.9%) and average concentric force (control, 71.6+/-0.7%; trained, 65.5+/-2.8%) occurred from fatigue. Recovery for 5 min returned isometric and average concentric force to 61.7+/-2.2% and 65.1+/-2.5% of initial values for controls and 76.9+/-2.2% and 77.1+/-2.2% after training. After recovery for 30 min, these forces were 87.6+/-0.7% and 89.2+/-1.1% of initial values for controls and recovered almost completely (94.2+/-1.3% and 94.6+/-1.6%) in trained muscles. During fatigue, the decline in force during successive concentric contractions was larger after training (from 19.7+/-1.1% to 50.1+/-2.0%; controls, from 19.9+/-2.0% to 41.7+/-1.4%). Recovery of this decline in force was training-independent and complete within 5 min. CONCLUSIONS: Rat plantar flexor muscles adapt to 6 wk of 5 d x wk(-1) resistance training with: 1) increased isometric force, 2) smaller losses in isometric and average concentric force during fatigue, 3) larger force decline during concentric contractions during fatigue, and 4) improved recovery following fatigue. Different mechanisms might account for the recovery of the average concentric force and the decline in force during concentric contractions.     

Capillarization in skeletal muscle of rats with cardiac hypertrophy

PURPOSE: Exercise intolerance during chronic heart failure (CHF) is localized mainly in skeletal muscle. A decreased capillarization may impair exchange of oxygen between capillaries and muscle tissue and in this way contribute to exercise intolerance. We assessed changes in capillary supply in plantaris and diaphragm muscles of a rat aorta-caval fistula (ACF) preparation, a volume overload model for CHF. METHODS: An ACF was created under equithesin anesthesia. Plantaris and diaphragm muscles were removed 6 wk postsurgery and examined for myosin heavy chain (MyHC) content and capillary supply. RESULTS: Cardiac hypertrophy was 96% (P < 0.002) after ACF. The Type IIb MyHC content of the plantaris muscles increased (33.9 +/- 3.3 vs 49.8 +/- 3.8%; mean +/- SEM) at the expense of Type IIa MyHC (17.6 +/- 1.8 vs 11.2 +/- 1.7%) in ACF rats (P < 0.05). In the diaphragm, the number of Type I (32.1 +/- 2.3 vs 40.6 +/- 2.7%) and IIb fibers (40.6 +/- 1.9 vs 49.6 +/- 3.6%) increased at the expense of Type IIa fibers (26.8 +/- 2.5 vs 9.4 +/- 0.9%) (P < 0.05). The capillary number per fiber did not change, and this indicated that no capillary loss occurred with ACF. Also, the capillary density was maintained in the diaphragm and plantaris muscles of ACF rats. Furthermore, the coupling between fiber type, size, and metabolic type of surrounding fibers, with the capillary supply to a fiber, was maintained in rats with an ACF. CONCLUSION: The cardiac hypertrophy induced by volume overload seems adequate to prevent atrophy and changes in the microcirculation of limb and diaphragm muscles.     

悬吊大鼠后肢骨骼肌等长收缩功能变化的动态特征

目的观测模拟失重1、2和4周大鼠比目鱼肌与趾长伸肌收缩性能的变化,并分析萎缩比目鱼肌收缩性能变化的可能机制.方法采用离体骨骼肌肌条灌流技术,观测比目鱼肌与趾长伸肌的等长收缩功能.结果悬吊1周大鼠比目鱼肌即出现萎缩,悬吊2周与4周进一步萎缩,在各时间点两组的差别均具有显著性或非常显著性意义.比目鱼肌等长收缩的最大张力在悬吊第1周仅呈降低趋势[对照组(1.76±0.18)g/mm2,悬吊组(1.46±0.26)g/mm2,P＞0.05],第2周的降低具有显著性意义[(1.25±0.09)g/mm2,P＜0.05],第4周则进一步降低[(0.90±0.06)g/mm2,P＜0.01].悬吊1周组大鼠趾长伸肌的最大张力未改变,2周与4周组的降低具有非常显著性意义(P＜0.01).悬吊1、2和4周组大鼠比目鱼肌等长收缩达到最大张力一半的时间与同步对照组相比,两组间的差别均无显著性意义(P＞0.05),但是,悬吊1与2周组达到最大张力的时间与从张力峰值到舒张75%的时间缩短(P＜0.05),悬吊4周组则进一步缩短(P＜0.01).与同步对照组相比,悬吊组趾长伸肌的时间参数均未发生改变(P＞0.05).结论由于比目鱼肌最大张力的降低与其萎缩在发生时间上不同步,而等长收缩的时间参数却较早发生改变,提示模拟失重萎缩比目鱼肌中调节性收缩蛋白可能较早发生改变,进而影响收缩性能.     

The effect of increased functional load on the activation of satellite cells in the skeletal muscle of adult rats.

The comparison of the number of satellite cells in the fast oxidative glycolytic muscle fibers of m. quadriceps femoris in males of normal Wistar rats aged 16-17 weeks (5 animals) and rats trained for endurance (5 animals) was made. After six weeks of treadmill running at a speed of 35 m/min in an increasing regimen, the number of satellite cells in trained animals (9.59 +/- 1.09%) increased over 2.5-fold in comparison to controls (3.41 +/- 0.26%) within 24 hours. At the ultrastructural level complete and focal injuries of some muscle fibers and the partial denervation of individual muscle fibers were recorded in trained rats. It was proposed that the focal functional denervation of muscle fibers could be one of the factors for the activation of satellite cells in endurance exercise. Some trained rats demonstrated small groups of extra- and perisynaptic satellite cells under the basal membrane of muscle fibres, partial detachment of satellite cells from the surface of muscle fiber and presence in the interstitial space cell containing filaments.     

Resistance training during unweighting maintains muscle size and function in human calf

PURPOSE: A 20-d 6 degrees head-down tilt bed rest project was conducted to evaluate the effect of dynamic leg press and plantar flexion resistance training on muscle size and function in human plantar flexors (PF) throughout the prolonged bed rest. METHODS: Twelve healthy men participated in this study and were divided two groups: resistance training (BR-Tr group: N = 6, age: 23 +/- 2 yr, height: 170 +/- 3 cm, weight: 66 +/- 7 kg) and nontraining (BR-Cont group: N = 6, age: 23 +/- 1 yr, height: 170 +/- 3 cm, weight: 67 +/- 6 kg) during the bed rest. Physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA) and peak torque of the PF muscle group was determined. Spin-spin relaxation times (T2) of the medial (MG) and lateral gastrocnemius (LG) and soleus (Sol) muscle was measured at rest and immediately after unilateral calf-raising exercise (5 sets of 10 reps). RESULTS: PCSA of the PF muscle group did not show any significant change in BR-Tr group; however, for the BR-Cont group, PCSA decreased by 13% after bed rest (P < 0.05). There was no significant change in exercise-induced T2 change of the MG, LG, or Sol muscles between before and after the bed rest in BR-Tr group; however, in the BR-Cont group, significant increases in T2 were found in these three muscles after the bed rest (P < 0.05 to 0.01). CONCLUSION: We conclude that dynamic leg press and plantar flexion resistance training during bed rest maintains muscle size and function (torque and T2), and that this training could be useful for prevention of progressive muscle deconditioning during spaceflight.     

体外循环法对犬骨骼肌缺血再灌注损伤的保护作用

 目的 探讨体外循环法(extracorporeal circulation, ECC)对犬骨骼肌缺血再灌注损伤的保护作用。方法 首先建立犬骨骼肌缺血再灌注损伤模型,通过HE染色法观察组织炎性细胞浸润,利用TUNEL法观察组织凋亡的变化,特异性试剂盒检测LD、SOD等酶的变化,ELISA法检测IL-10和TNF-α等细胞因子的变化,评价ECC法再灌注模式对犬骨骼肌缺血再灌注损伤的保护作用。结果 模型组动物的组织炎性细胞浸润明显,诱导细胞凋亡发生,血清中LD[(2.6±0.3)mmol/ml vs.(5.2±0.1)mmol/ml ]、SOD[(15.2±1.2)U/ml vs.(31.1±2.1)U/ml]等酶的水平显著增加,同时血清中IL-10[(60.4±2.3)pg/ml vs.(89.2±1.5)pg/ml ]和TNF-α[(172.3±8.7)ng/l vs. (273.4±12.5 )ng/l]等细胞因子的含量显著增加 (P<0.01)。ECC法再灌注处理的动物,其组织炎性反应和细胞凋亡程度显著低于模型组动物,血清中上述酶和细胞因子的水平也显著降低,分别为:LD[(3.5±0.1)mmol/ml vs. (5.2±0.1) mmol/ml],SOD[(21.3±1.3)U/ml vs. (31.1±2.1) U/ml], IL-10[(69.4±2.6) pg/ml vs. (89.2±1.5)pg/ml]和TNF-α[(190.8±12.1)ng/l vs.(273.4±12.5)ng/l ](P<0.05)。结论 ECC法再灌注模式,对犬骨骼肌缺血再灌注损伤具有一定的保护作用。     

Combined effects of whole-body vibration, resistance exercise, and vascular occlusion on skeletal muscle and performance

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of a new high-intensity training modality comprised of vibration exercise with superimposed resistance exercise and vascular occlusion (vibroX) on skeletal muscle and performance. Young untrained women were randomized to either train in a progressive mode on 3 days per week for 5 weeks ( N=12) or to maintain a sedentary lifestyle ( N=9). VibroX increased peak cycling power (+9%, P=0.001), endurance capacity (+57%, P=0.002), ventilatory threshold (+12%, P<0.001), and end-test torque (+15%, P=0.002) relative to the sedentary group. Training load increased by 84.5% ( P<0.001) after vibroX. The increases were paralleled by increases in myosin heavy chain type 1 vastus lateralis muscle fiber cross-sectional area (+14%, P=0.031) and proportion (+17%, P=0.015), thigh lean mass (+4%, P=0.001), capillary-to-fiber ratio (+14%, P=0.003), and cytochrome c oxidase activity. Conversely, maximal values for oxygen consumption, cardiac output, isokinetic leg extension power and jumping power remained unaffected. Notably, vastus lateralis muscle adaptations were achieved with a very low weekly training volume. We conclude that vibroX quickly increases muscle (fiber) size, capillarization, and oxidative potential, and markedly augments endurance capacity in young women.     

Effects of chronic centrifugation on skeletal muscle fibers in young developing rats

Three groups of 30-d old male and female rats were centrifuged for 2, 4, 8, and 16 weeks, after which their soleus and plantaris muscles were analysed for changes in proportion of muscle fiber types. The groups were: earth control, maintained at earth gravity without rotation; rotation control, subjected to a gravitational force of 1.05 G and 28 rpm; and rotation experimental, subjected to a gravitational force of 2 G and 28 rpm. Muscle fibers were classified into four fiber types on the basis of actomyosin ATPase activity as slow oxidative, fast oxidative glycolytic, and either fast glycolytic (plantaris) or intermediate (soleus). Hypergravity resulted in an increase in slow oxidative fibers in soleus and the deep region of plantaris. Chronic rotation of males resulted in a decreased proportion of slow oxidative fibers in soleus relative to the earth control, but not of females treated similarly. The relationship of body weight to the changes in proportion of slow oxidative fibers is discussed.     

Different effects of exercise and edema on T2 relaxation in skeletal muscle

The hypothesis that increased muscle T₂ after exercise is caused by increased extracellular fluid volume was tested by comparing the effects of exercise versus external leg negative pressure on muscle T₂ relaxation in normal human subjects. T₂ in lower leg muscles was measured by echo-planar imaging at 63 echo times from 24 to 272 ms, and the relaxation spectrum was calculated by using a non-negative least squares algorithm. T₂ relaxation in anterior leg muscle before exercise was characterized by a single component with mean T₂ = 29.3 ± 0.7 (SE, n = 5). After ankle dorsiflexion exercise, this single component broadened, and mean T₂ increased to 38.3 ± 0.7 ms. In contrast, after leg negative pressure, which increased the total leg muscle cross-sectional area by 21% (range 12–32% n = 6), there was a variable appearance of much slower-relaxing components (60–500 ms). The results suggest that increased extracellular fluid can account for only a minor portion of the increase in muscle T₂ observed during exercise.