Prior condom use and the risk of tubal pregnancy.

The relationship between prior condom use and tubal pregnancy was assessed in a population-based case-control study at Group Health Cooperative of Puget Sound during 1981-86. We interviewed 227 women with a tubal pregnancy who had no clinical indication of infertility and no history of sterilization and 674 similarly defined controls who were matched to the cases on age and county of residence. A history of condom use for more than one year was associated with a decreased risk of subsequent tubal pregnancy (RR = 0.74, 95% CI = 0.44, 1.26) adjusted for the effects of age, current use of contraceptive methods, educational level, and age at first intercourse. The effect was more pronounced when condoms had been used during five-year periods with more than one partner (RR = 0.38, 95% CI = 0.15, 1.0) than during five-year periods with one partner (RR = 0.89, 95% CI = 0.45, 1.76). Condom use for less than one year was unrelated to risk of ectopic pregnancy. Since the use of condoms offers protection against sexually transmitted diseases, one or more of which are likely to be causally related to tubal pregnancy, the observed negative association plausibly represents a protective influence of long-term condom use on the occurrence of tubal pregnancy.     

Vaginal douching and the risk of tubal pregnancy

To explore the possible association between vaginal douching and tubal pregnancy, we interviewed 273 women who were diagnosed with tubal pregnancy at Group Health Cooperative between September 31, 1981 and October 1, 1986. Their responses were compared with responses of a random sample of 722 female members of Group Health Cooperative who were assumed to be at risk of becoming pregnant at the time the cases conceived. After adjusting for differences between cases and controls with regard to other measured risk factors, we found a modest increase in risk associated with having douched more than two times per year in the past (RR = 1.3, 95% CI: 0.9-1.8). Among women who had more than one sexual partner during their lifetime, however, the risk for those who had douched more than twice per year was somewhat higher (RR = 1.6, 95% CI: 1.1-2.3). There was an indication that women who had been exposed to Chlamydia trachomatis, as indicated by elevated antibody titers, may further increase their risk for tubal pregnancy by douching (RR = 2.4, 95% CI: 0.8-7.3). The associations found in other studies between douching and pelvic inflammatory disease, and between pelvic inflammatory disease and subsequent tubal pregnancy, argue that a relation between douching and tubal pregnancy might be anticipated. Our results offer further support for this hypothesis.     

Maternal cigarette smoking and the risk of tubal pregnancy.

The association between maternal smoking and the occurrence of tubal pregnancy was evaluated in a population-based case-control study of members of the Group Health Cooperative of Puget Sound, Seattle, Washington. Women hospitalized with tubal pregnancy from October 1981 through September 1986 (n = 274) were compared with reproductive-age women who were at risk of becoming pregnant during the same time period (n = 727). The relative risk of tubal pregnancy associated with ever having smoked cigarettes was 1.3 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.0-1.8). Compared with women who had never smoked, those who smoked at the time of conception had a 40% increase in the risk of tubal pregnancy (95% CI 1.0-2.0). These results support earlier epidemiologic and nonepidemiologic reports of a greater risk of tubal pregnancy associated with current or recent maternal cigarette smoking.     

Risk of ectopic pregnancy and previous induced abortion.

OBJECTIVES: This study investigated the role of prior history of induced abortion in subsequent ectopic pregnancies. METHODS: Data from two French case-control studies were used to examine the effect of induced abortion on ectopic pregnancy risk. Case patients (n = 570) were women admitted for ectopic pregnancy during the study period; controls (n = 1385) were women who delivered in the same center. RESULTS: The analysis among women with no previous ectopic pregnancy showed that, after control for the main ectopic pregnancy risk factors, prior induced abortion was associated with an increased risk of ectopic pregnancy (odds ratio [OR] = 1.5, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.0, 2.0); there was a significant trend between number of previous induced abortions and ectopic pregnancy risk (ORs = 1.4 for 1 previous induced abortion and 1.9 for 2 or more). CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that induced abortion may be a risk factor for ectopic pregnancy for women with no previous ectopic pregnancy, particularly in the case of women who have had several induced abortions.     

输卵管妊娠术后不孕及重复性异位妊娠的危险因素分析

目的调查分析输卵管妊娠术后不孕及重复性异位妊娠的危险因素。方法选取2006年4月-2011年1月进行手术治疗的278例输卵管妊娠患者为研究对象,将其中不同自身基本情况、并发疾病情况和治疗情况患者的重复性异位妊娠发生率及不孕率进行比较。结果不同年龄的重复性异位妊娠发生率及不孕率无显著性差异(P>0.05),而伴有盆腔炎、不孕史、盆腔粘连、输卵管粘连及子宫内膜异位症患者的重复性异位妊娠发生率及不孕率高于其他患者,而开腹手术患者发生率高于腹腔镜手术(P<0.05),差异有统计学意义。结论输卵管妊娠术后不孕及重复性异位妊娠的危险因素包括盆腔炎、不孕史、盆腔粘连、输卵管粘连、子宫内膜异位及开腹手术,应给予充分重视。     

116 ectopic pregnancies observed in Bangui (Central African Republic)

Although ectopic pregnancy continues to endanger the life of patients in the Central African Republic, data on this pathology is drastically missing. This study is the result of an observation carried out over a period of 1 year taking all ectopic pregnancy cases into account with a view to identify the risk factors of this pathology and to draw the epidemiological profile of the patients concerned. Controls were used for the identification of the risk factors. The frequency of ectopic pregnancies was of 1 case against 61.8 deliveries. Ectopic pregnancies were more frequent among young women, with a peak in the 20-29 age group. Gonococcus infections and multiple partners were found to be correlated with the occurrence of ectopic pregnancies. If paraclinical tests had helped establish the diagnosis, the presence of clinical symptoms was decisive, thus explaining late diagnosis with tubal rupture followed by an hemorrhage. Those patients who were attended at an advanced stage had to undergo tubal resection, a treatment jeopardizing their obstetrical future. Clearly, African practitioners must imperatively learn to identify the clinical symptoms of this pathology.     

Safety of quinacrine contraceptive pellets: results from 10-year follow-up in Vietnam

BACKGROUND: This study was conducted to evaluate long-term safety of quinacrine pellets for nonsurgical sterilization among women in Vietnam. STUDY DESIGN: Observational cohort study of 2735 women who had quinacrine insertions between 1989 and 1993 compared to 1623 women who received an intrauterine device (IUD). RESULTS: Cumulative follow-up times for the quinacrine and IUD cohorts were 28,697 and 17,382 person-years, respectively, and losses to follow-up were 6% and 7%, respectively. Quinacrine users had a higher incidence of ectopic pregnancy compared to IUD users (risk ratio, 2.2; 95% confidence interval, 1.06-4.54); the risks of cancer, hysterectomy, pelvic/gynecologic surgery and death were similar in the two groups. Two quinacrine insertions appeared to lower the risk of ectopic pregnancy to that of surgical tubal occlusion. CONCLUSIONS: Use of quinacrine in this cohort appeared to have minimal health risks. Other research, including preclinical studies, needs to be considered in an overall evaluation of whether the combination of safety and efficacy provide a basis for quinacrine's approval by appropriate regulatory agencies.     

Prior cesarean delivery in women with secondary tubal infertility.

The history of cesarean delivery was evaluated in a population-based case-control study of secondary infertility in King County, Washington. Sixty-one married women diagnosed with secondary infertility due to tubal problems who had a previous viable pregnancy were compared to 343 married women who had a previous viable pregnancy and then had a live birth that was conceived at the same time the infertile women began trying to conceive. The risk of tubal infertility was not substantially elevated in women who had a previous cesarean delivery in the most recent viable pregnancy compared to women with vaginal delivery (odds ratio = 1.2; 95% confidence interval = 0.4, 3.7).     

Infertility among women exposed prenatally to diethylstilbestrol

Although it is well established that women exposed to diethylstilbestrol in utero have an increased risk of spontaneous abortion, ectopic pregnancy, and preterm delivery, it is not known whether they also have an increased risk of infertility. The authors assessed this question in data from a collaborative follow-up study of the offspring of women who took diethylstilbestrol during pregnancy. In 1994, 1,753 diethylstilbestrol-exposed and 1,050 unexposed women from an ongoing cohort study (National Cooperative Diethylstilbestrol Adenosis Study and Dieckmann cohorts) provided data on difficulties in conceiving and reasons for the difficulty. Age-adjusted relative risks were computed for the association of diethylstilbestrol exposure with specific types of infertility. A greater proportion of exposed than unexposed women were nulligravid (relative risk (RR) = 1.3, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.1, 1.5), and a greater proportion had tried to become pregnant for at least 12 months without success (RR = 1.8, 95% CI: 1.6, 2.1). Diethylstilbestrol exposure was significantly associated with infertility due to uterine and tubal problems, with relative risks of 7.7 (95% CI: 2.3, 25) and 2.4 (95% CI: 1.2, 4.6), respectively. The present findings indicate that diethylstilbestrol-exposed women have a higher risk of infertility than do unexposed women and that the increased risk of infertility is primarily due to uterine or tubal problems.     

IVF-ET后发生异位妊娠或宫内外同时妊娠相关因素分析

目的:探讨IVF-ET治疗后发生异位妊娠的相关因素。方法:回顾性分析2006年1～10月在南方医院生殖医学中心行体外受精-胚胎移植(IVF-ET)治疗获得临床妊娠并有最终妊娠结局的203例患者的临床资料。结果:输卵管妊娠发生率为2.46%,宫内外同时妊娠的发生率为1.48%。异位妊娠及宫内外同时妊娠的8例患者均为盆腔卵管因素不孕,6例曾行腹腔镜检查及手术。与正常宫内妊娠组相比,女方年龄、基础激素水平(E2、P、LH、FSH和T)、HCG日激素水平(E2、P、LH)、促性腺激素总量、取卵日及HCG日内膜厚度、取卵数均无显著性差异(P>0.05)。异位妊娠组既往异位妊娠次数显著多于宫内妊娠组(P<0.05)。异位妊娠组优良胚胎形成率低于宫内妊娠组,但无显著性差异(P=0.064)。不同移植人员之间的异位妊娠率无显著性差异(P>0.05)。结论:对于异位妊娠高危患者可以考虑子宫中下段移植和单囊胚移植。异位妊娠的早期诊断非常重要,早期发现宫内外同时妊娠并及早手术,可以将对宫内胎儿的影响减至最低。     

Risk factors for ectopic pregnancy: a case-control study in France, with special focus on infectious factors

A case-control study was conducted in 1988 in seven Paris area maternity hospitals to evaluate the role of several risk factors, particularly infectious factors, in ectopic pregnancy. A total of 279 cases and 279 controls were compared for sociodemographic characteristics, cigarette smoking, sexual, reproductive and surgical histories, and conditions of conception. Pelvic inflammatory disease confirmed by celioscopy (odds ratio (OR) = 5.5, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.1-13.9) and Chlamydia trachomatis seropositivity (OR = 3.9, 95% CI 2.3-6.7) appeared to be important risk factors for ectopic pregnancy. Other risk factors found to be associated with an increased risk of ectopic pregnancy were dose-related cigarette smoking at the time of conception (ORs 1.3 to 2.5), appendectomy (OR = 1.6, 95% CI 1.1-2.5), prior tubal surgery (OR = 5.1, 95% CI 1.7-15.4), induced conception cycle (OR = 3.2, 95% CI 1.1-9.3), and prior ectopic pregnancy (OR = 13.3, 95% CI 4.5-39.2). However, some of the latter risk factors, i.e., prior tubal surgery, prior ectopic pregnancy, and perhaps appendectomy, may be considered to be the results of pelvic inflammatory disease and sexually transmitted diseases. Maternal age, parity, prior induced abortion, and prior spontaneous abortion were not associated with ectopic pregnancy. Use of intrauterine device, progestagen micropill, and also combined estroprogestative pill at the time of conception were associated with a better prevention of intrauterine pregnancy than of ectopic pregnancy. These findings confirm the importance of several previously reported risk factors of ectopic pregnancy: sexually transmitted diseases, cigarette smoking, and prior ectopic pregnancy. They also identified new risk factors, appendectomy and induced conception cycle, and revealed that the combined estroprogestative pill does not prevent ectopic pregnancy as effectively as it does intrauterine pregnancy.     

Ectopic pregnancy and prior induced abortion.

We compared the prior pregnancy histories of 85 multigravid women with an ectopic pregnancy and 498 multigravid delivery comparison subjects. We found a relationship between the number of prior induced abortions and the risk of ectopic pregnancy: the crude relative risk of ectopic pregnancy was 1.6 for women with one prior induced abortion and 4.0 for women with two or more prior induced abortions; however, use of multivariate techniques to control confounding factors reduced the relative risks to 1.3 (95 per cent confidence interval, 0.6-2.7) and 2.6 (95 per cent confidence interval, 0.9-7.4), respectively. The analysis suggests that induced abortion may be one of several risk factors for ectopic pregnancy, particularly for women who have had abortions plus pelvic inflammatory disease or multiple abortions.     

Effect of the venereal diseases epidemic on the incidence of ectopic pregnancy -- implications for the evaluation of contraceptives

This paper identifies a basis for quantifying the risk of ectopic pregnancy in pregnancy seekers and in users of the major means of contraception, with and without prior tubal infection. The doubling, in U.S. in recent years, of both numbers of ectopic pregnancies and the prevalence of nonsurgical sterility is correlated with the epidemic of gonorrhea and other sexually transmitted, salpingitis-producing diseases. The risk of ectopic pregnancy in women who have once had salpingitis is shown, on the basis of Weström's landmark prospective study and many retrospective studies, to be approximately 10-fold that of normal women. Fertilization-preventing contraceptives reduce uterine and ectopic pregnancies in the same proportion and in both categories of users--that is, in normal-risk and high-risk (post-salpingitis) women. Intrauterine contraceptives, however, markedly reduce uterine pregnancies, but have little effect on the incidence of ectopic pregnancy. Among IUD users, therefore, the incidence of ectopic pregnancy will be disproportionately great in relation to the fraction of high-risk women in the population of users. This disproportionate influence of prior salpingitis may confuse the comparative evaluation of contraceptive safety because the proportions of normal-risk and high-risk women probably vary widely, since public health data show extremely wide geographic differences in the incidence of gonorrhea -- the best known but not the only sexually transmitted, salpingitis-producing disease.     

The relationship of smoking and ectopic pregnancy.

A case-control study, using data abstracted between 1983 and 1987 from a large perinatal registry, was conducted to explore the relationship between smoking and ectopic pregnancy. Women with ectopic pregnancy (n = 634) seen at University of Illinois Perinatal Network Hospitals were compared to women who were delivered of a single live-born infant (n = 4287). Adjusted for age and race, women who reported smoking during pregnancy had a greater than twofold risk of ectopic pregnancy (Odds Ratio = 2.5, 95% confidence interval = 1.9, 3.2) compared to women who never smoked. The estimated relative risk rose from 1.4 (95% CI = 0.8, 2.5) for a woman smoking fewer than 10 cigarettes a day to 5.0 (95% CI = 2.9, 8.7) at one and a half or more packs of cigarettes per day (p-value for trend less than 0.001). Although further basic and epidemiologic research is necessary, the observed dose-response relation strengthens the argument that smoking may be a causal factor in the development of ectopic pregnancy.     

Risk factors for ectopic pregnancy: a comprehensive analysis based on a large case-control,population-based study in France

This case-control study was associated with a regional register of ectopic pregnancy between 1993 and 2000 in France. It included 803 cases of ectopic pregnancy and 1,683 deliveries and was powerful enough to investigate all ectopic pregnancy risk factors. The main risk factors were infectious history (adjusted attributable risk = 0.33; adjusted odds ratio for previous pelvic infectious disease = 3.4, 95% percent confidence interval (CI): 2.4, 5.0) and smoking (adjusted attributable risk = 0.35; adjusted odds ratio = 3.9, 95% CI: 2.6, 5.9 for >20 cigarettes/day vs. women who had never smoked). The other risk factors were age (associated per se with a risk of ectopic pregnancy), prior spontaneous abortions, history of infertility, and previous use of an intrauterine device. Prior medical induced abortion was associated with a risk of ectopic pregnancy (adjusted odds ratio = 2.8, 95% CI: 1.1, 7.2); no such association was observed for surgical abortion (adjusted odds ratio = 1.1, 95% CI: 0.8, 1.6). The total attributable risk of all the factors investigated was 0.76. As close associations were found between ectopic pregnancy and infertility and between ectopic pregnancy and spontaneous abortion, further research into ectopic pregnancy should focus on risk factors common to these conditions. In terms of public health, increasing awareness of the effects of smoking may be useful for ectopic pregnancy prevention.     

腹腔镜下输卵管吻合术68例临床分析

目的:评价腹腔镜下输卵管吻合术的临床效果和影响因素。方法:对68例输卵管绝育术的患者行腹腔镜下6、12点输卵管吻合术,并统计术后宫内妊娠率、活产分娩率、异位妊娠发生率以及影响妊娠结局的因素。结果:随访至少24个月,68例中11例失访,随访成功的57例中术后宫内妊娠成功率80.7%(46/57),异位妊娠发生率5.2%(3/57),未孕11例,占19.2%(11/57)。其中46例宫内妊娠中,术后6个月内妊娠23例占50.0%,12个月内妊娠39例占84.8%,18个月内妊娠45例,占97.8%,除2例现孕8月外,已分娩42例,活产分娩率91.3%(42/46),自然流产2例,自然流产率4.3%(2/46)。≥40岁及以上患者宫内妊娠率为40.0%(2/5),<40岁患者宫内妊娠率为84.6%(44/52)。结论:腹腔镜下输卵管吻合术是最能体现腹腔镜这一微创手术优越性的手术,是绝育术后要求生育患者的一个较好的治疗选择。     

Induced abortion and the risk of subsequent ectopic pregnancy.

This study assessed the effect of legal induced abortion on ectopic pregnancy risk by using a comparison group of reproductive-age women who were at risk of becoming pregnant during the same time period the women with ectopic pregnancy conceived. Cases were members of Group Health Cooperative of Puget Sound who were hospitalized for ectopic pregnancy from October 1981 through September 1986 (N = 211). Controls were randomly selected members matched to cases on age and county of residence (N = 457). All subjects in this analysis had had one or more prior pregnancies. Eighty-eight cases (41.7 per cent) and 177 controls (38.7 per cent) had a history of one or more induced abortions. The relative risk of ectopic pregnancy associated with one abortion was 0.9 (95 per cent confidence interval 0.6, 1.3), adjusted for age, county, reference date, religion, gravidity, age at first pregnancy, lifetime number of sexual partners, and miscarriage history. Among women with two or more prior pregnancies, the risk associated with two or more abortions was 1.2 (0.6, 2.4). Controlling for pelvic inflammatory disease and use of intrauterine devices did not alter these risks. We conclude that legal abortion as performed in the US since 1970 has little or no influence on a woman's risk of ectopic pregnancy in subsequent pregnancies.     

异位妊娠MTX保守治疗过程中破裂出血病例的临床分析

目的:评价异位妊娠在MTX保守治疗过程中发生破裂出血的危险因素。方法:回顾性分析100例MTX保守治疗的异位妊娠妇女,主要测量指标为血浆HCG水平。结果:异位妊娠MTX保守治疗前、后HCG水平的上升速度与输卵管破裂出血密切相关;保守治疗给药前48 h HCG上升超过66%或给药后HCG仍持续性升高,则提示输卵管破裂可能性大;65%异位妊娠破裂出血在峡部。结论:MTX治疗前、后HCG上升的速度是预示输卵管破裂出血的良好指标;保守治疗给药前HCG上升速度超过66%/48 h或用药后HCG仍持续性升高,提示可能需要外科手术治疗;妊娠囊的着床部位也是输卵管破裂的高危因素。     

体外受精-胚胎移植后异位妊娠20例临床分析

目的:探讨体外受精-胚胎移植后异位妊娠的发生率、高危因素及处理方式。方法:回顾性分析2009年2月～2011年2月接受IVF/ICSI治疗后发生异位妊娠的患者20例,并随机选取IVF/ICSI治疗后正常宫内妊娠100例作为正常对照。结果:IVF/ICSI共治疗1 434个周期,临床妊娠645例,临床妊娠率为44.98%(645/1 434),其中发生异位妊娠20例,发生率为3.10%(20/645),其中宫内外同时妊娠2例,输卵管间质部妊娠2例,宫角妊娠1例。20例异位妊娠的不孕原因中,有16例为输卵管因素,3例为多囊卵巢综合征,3例有子宫内膜息肉,4例为子宫内膜异位症,8例有既往异位妊娠史,7例有流产史。两组患者的年龄、不孕年限、不孕类型、体重指数(BMI)、助孕方式、移植胚胎类型、人绒毛膜促性腺激素注射日雌二醇及黄体生成素水平、子宫内膜厚度等比较差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05),而人绒毛膜促性腺激素注射日孕激素水平、雌二醇/孕激素比值的差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论:输卵管病变和盆腔炎是辅助生殖术后异位妊娠发生的高危因素,阴道超声检查结合血β-HCG值测定是最有效的诊断措施,腹腔镜下输卵管切除术是目前治疗异位妊娠的较好方法。     

The impact of ectopic pregnancy: a 16-year follow-up study

Ectopic pregnancy is a potentially life-threatening event that represents the loss of a pregnancy and also may have longer-term consequences for fertility. Despite this triple threat to a woman's well-being, almost no systematic research exists on the psychological impact of ectopic pregnancy. We sought to reinterview 18 women who had been interviewed 2 months following an ectopic pregnancy as part of a longitudinal study of pregnancy loss 16 years previously. Thirteen of these women responded to questions about the long-term impact of the ectopic pregnancy on their lives in the intervening years. For many of the women, the ectopic pregnancy was a traumatic experience that impaired their fertility, strained their marriages, and led to a crisis of faith. Yet, despite the trauma of the event, overall the women found ways to interpret it positively and to use it as a source of meaning in their lives.