Changes in sex differences in sexual behavior: A replication of a study on West German students (1966–1981)

In 1966, at the start of the student movement and the sexual liberalization process, we studied the sexual behavior and attitudes of 3,666 male and female students from 12 West German universities by mailed questionnaires. In 1981 we replicated this study with 1,922 students from 13 universities (10 the same as 1966, 3 founded after 1966). In both studies the students were selected at random. Results of these comparative studies are presented with a view to the changes in sex differences. Sex differences in masturbation behavior have considerably decreased since 1966; masturbation is nonetheless still the form of sexual behavior with the most striking differences between the sexes. The sex differences in coital behavior are now reversed, female students being earlier and more active than males. As regards the tendency to change partners or for sexual relations outside a steady relationship, the differences between men and women have disappeared. In their attitudes to sexuality, female students in 1981 are somewhat more liberal than their male counterparts, whereas hardly any difference could be found in 1966. These changes in sex differences are observed in all subsamples, i.e., in young and old, in strictly religious and nonreligious students, and in students from both upper- and lower-class backgrounds (educational level of parents).Revised version of a paper read at the 8th Annual Meeting, International Academy of Sex Research, August 22–26, 1982, in Copenhagen. This investigation was supported by a research grant from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Bonn, West Germany. The report was translated by Tom Todd, Hamburg.     

The influence of parents,church, and peers on the sexual attitudes and behaviors of college students

Male and female undergraduate students were surveyed concerning their sexual attitudes, sexual behaviors, and contraceptive behavior. In addition, the general attitudes about sexuality the students perceived as communicated to them by their parents, their church, and their peers were assessed. It was found for female students that general attitudes about sexuality, as defined on an erotophilia-erotophobia dimension, and sexual behaviors were correlated with the perceived attitudes of peers, rather than those of parents and church. However, male students' attitudes and some sexual behaviors were correlated with the perceived attitudes of their parents, rather than the views of their peers and church. Church attitudes were not found to be related to any of the measures. None of the sources of influence, parents, peers, or church attitudes, or erotophilia-erotophobia was related to contraceptive behavior.This article is taken from the first author's undergraduate honors thesis, prepared under the supervision of the second author.     

Sexual Attitudes and Number of Partners in Young British Men

The relationship between sexual attitudes and number of heterosexual partners in a survey-based and nationally representative random sample of 551 British men aged 16–25 years was examined. The main predictor of the number of partners in the last 5 years was the time since the first sexual intercourse, whereas age, marital status, education, social class, smoking, and alcohol consumption contributed on a smaller but significant level. Sexual attitudes were summarized in terms of three underlying dimensions which could be described as permissiveness, attitudes toward sexual relations of same-sex partners, and importance of orgasm for sex. None of these was a significant predictor of the number of partners in the last 5 years. Both permissiveness and number of partners were associated with the age of first sexual intercourse and other background variables indicating opportunities for social contact. In conclusion, common factors of sexual attitudes and the number of sexual partners are not directly related but rather jointly predicted by a very similar set of background variables such as age, time since first sexual intercourse, social class, smoking, and alcohol consumption. Given the absence of a significant relationship between sexual attitudes and number of young men's partners, promoting safer sex may be a more sensible strategy than trying to change these attitudes.     

Sexual orientation and eating psychopathology: the role of masculinity and femininity

OBJECTIVE: Previous research suggests that eating disorders are related to homosexuality in men, although links with female sexual orientation are less clear. Appearance factors have generally been implicated in this relationship. However, previous studies have failed to consider the role of femininity, even though evidence suggests that this is a more critical factor than sexual preference. The aim of this study was to consider the relationship between gender-role orientation and eating psychopathology in nonclinical men and women of different sexual orientations. METHOD: One hundred university students (40 homosexual; 60 heterosexual) completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory and the Eating Attitudes Test. RESULTS: For the group as a whole, there were links between femininity and high levels of eating psychopathology, whereas masculinity was associated with relatively healthy eating-related attitudes and behaviors. When considering the role of sexual orientation, these links were specific to homosexual men and women. CONCLUSIONS: In relation to homosexual men and women, the results support a model where femininity might be seen as a specific risk factor for eating disorders, whereas masculinity is likely to be a protective factor. Methodological and conceptual implications are discussed.     

Heterosexual and homosexual coercion,sexual orientation and sexual roles in medical students

Rape has been conceptualized on a dimension of normal male behavior. The Koss and Oros (1982) study used a questionnaire that allowed men to respond only as sexual aggressors of women, and women only as victims of men. Medical students' responses to a modified questionnaire, in which both sexes reported being aggressors and/or victims, revealed that relatively comparable proportions of men and women were victims of coercive experiences: 35% of women and 30% of men experiencing constant physical attempts to have sexual activity. Forms of coercion not involving threat or use of force were more common, more exclusively heterosexual, and carried out by more equivalent percentages of men and women. 15% of women and 12% of men felt initially coerced into sexual activity but then enjoyed it. Threat or use of force to attempt to or to obtain intercourse were employed by 4% of men and 2% of women and experienced by 5% of both sexes. Half the male victims and female aggressors and a quarter of the male aggressors and female victims who reported such coercion stated it was homosexual. The ratio of homosexual/heterosexual feelings reported by male, but not female, students correlated with the degree of the homosexual coercion they both carried out and experienced. The degree of sexual coercion carried out by men and women correlated with their masculine sex role scores, suggesting, if the dimensional concept of rape is valid, that rape is on a continuum with masculine rather than male behaviors.     

Verbal coercive sexual behavior among college students

Coercive sexual behavior exists at alarming rates on college campuses. Researchers attempting to identify factors related to sexual coercion have primarily investigated either the coercing college male or the coerced college female, independent of relationship factors. The present study investigated the prevalence of verbal sexual coercion, the beliefs and attitudes of sexually coercive and noncoercive men, and the differences in affective states between groups and at different stages of relationship development. Undergraduate students were grouped on the basis of their self-reported sexual experience history as being sexually inexperienced, having had consensual sexual relationships only, or having had coercive sexual relationships. Also, subjects who reported having been sexually experienced were asked to rate the nature of their relationship to their sexual partner. Subjects completed measures referring to sexual attitudes, sexual arousal patterns, and the emotional components of a sexual encounter. Analyses indicated that 42% of the males in the sample had engaged in verbal sexual coercion. Differences on the measures were found between the sexual experience groups and the relationship type subgroups. Results are discussed in the context of the situational model, in which the coercive male plays an active role in shaping his environment.This research was partially supported by a South Carolina Psychological Association Graduate Research Fellowship to the first author. Portions of this paper have been presented at the 1988 meetings of the Southeastern Psychological Association, New Orleans.     

Swedish or American heterosexual college youth: Who is more permissive?

Theories of human sexuality have proposed that two factors reduce the double standard of sexuality and lead to a convergence of male and female sexual behavior: the degree of social benefits and amount of power women have in basic societal institutions and the extent to which a society accepts permissive sexual norms. As these factors increase, the strength of the double standard will decrease and the convergence between male and female behaviors will increase. Compared to the United States, Sweden has instituted more policies to promote gender equality and has been thought to accept more permissive premarital sexual attitudes. The focus of the research reported here is to examine country and gender differences in sexual attitudes and sexual behavior for a sample of university students in the United States (N = 407) and Sweden (N = 570). Results indicate that Swedish students endorsed more similar sexual standards for women and men and reported more accepting attitudes than did American students. For sexual behavior, American men reported the most sexual experience, Swedish men the least, with the women of both countries generally in the middle category. Notwithstanding this more permissive behavior on the part of American men, gender convergence with respect to sexual behavior is stronger in Sweden on several of the dimensions examined: age of first engaging in partner-related sexual activities for those who were sexually experienced, relationship with first partner, number of partners both in the last year and in their lifetime, and affective reactions to first coitus. Gender convergence, however, is weaker in Sweden than in the United States with respect to the incidence and frequency of various sexual activities and the degree of satisfaction with current sex life. Findings are discussed with respect to the questions they raise about the current theories that framed this research and the differential amount of sex education provided in the two countries.The research reported here was supported in part with a grant from the Foundation for the Scientific Study of Sexuality.     

男男性接触者中异性爱者与素质性同性爱者艾滋病高危性行为比较

目的探讨中国男男性接触者（MSM）中异性爱者与素质性同性爱者（gay）艾滋病高危性行为状况。方法采用定向抽样方法，对9城市2250例MSM进行匿名问卷调查，比较其中异性爱组与gay组的高危性行为。结果异性爱组累计同性性伴数（平均13．8个）、近6个月同性性伴数（平均3．8个）、累计同性口交性伴数（平均10．5个）和同性肛交性伴数（平均12．4个），均低于gay组；在婚异性爱组累计女性性伴数（平均4．9个）、近6个月女性性伴数（平均1．7个），均高于在婚gay组。异性爱组同性性交安全套使用率（68．8％）低于gay组；但最近1次同性肛交安全套使用率（91．3％）、与女性性交安全套使用率（63．7％）均高于gay组；两组最近1次同性肛交安全套使用率（分别为91．3％、71．0％）均高于最近1次同性口交安全套使用率。异性爱组最近1年曾参加群交百分率（9．9％）、性交时自己或对方出血过百分率（16．7％）、到外地并与当地男性性交百分率（11．4％），曾向同性买性百分率（4．6％）、16岁前遭遇过成年男性实施的强迫性交百分率（4．2％），均低于gay组。结论MSM中异性爱者与gay的高危性行为存在诸多差异，为有效阻断HIV传播，干预工作应选择重点亚人群进行。     

Same-Sex Sexual Attraction Does Not Spread in Adolescent Social Networks

Peers have a powerful effect on adolescents’ beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. Here, we examine the role of social networks in the spread of attitudes towards sexuality using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health). Although we found evidence that both sexual activity (OR = 1.79) and desire to have a romantic relationship (OR = 2.69) may spread from person to person, attraction to same sex partners did not spread (OR = 0.96). Analyses of comparable power to those that suggest positive and significant peer-to-peer influence in sexual behavior fail to demonstrate a significant relationship on sexual attraction between friends or siblings. These results suggest that peer influence has little or no effect on the tendency toward heterosexual or homosexual attraction in teens, and that sexual orientation is not transmitted via social networks.     

Sexual language usage in different interpersonal contexts: A comparison of gender and sexual orientation

Previous investigators have demonstrated that gender differences exist in the use of sexual language in various interpersonal contexts. However, sexual orientation has not been addressed in any study regarding sexual language usage. This investigation examined the use of sexual language for female and male in different interpersonal contexts based upon sexual orientation. Respondents were 440 university students: 202 heterosexual female, 30 lesbian, 173 heterosexual male, and 35 gay male. Findings indicate that differences in sexual language usage in interpersonal contexts is significant for gender as well as for sexual orientation. Conjecture is made for the implications this may have on intimate relationships.     

Sexual dimorphism in the activity of olive baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis) housed in monosexual groups

In this study, responses to the formation of social groups were compared between adult male and female Papio cynocephalus anubis. Quantitative behavioral data based on systematic focal animal sampling were used to test the hypothesis that adult male and female olive baboons are similar in their behavioral response to (1) the formation of monosexual social groups and (2) the simultaneous reduction of social unit and habitat size. Males and females differed (ttest, p <0.05) in performance of sexual, tension, and stereotypy behavior during large group formations. During small group formations, males and females differed in play, subordinate, locomotion, manipulation, sexual, tension, and stereotypy behavior. Our observations, clearly indicate that in captivity, under conditions of identical housing, social structure, and social unit history, males and females differ in their behavior performance. Our data suggest that some socioenvironmental conditions, such as the lack of heterosexual grouping, may exaggerate those differences.     

Sexual experience and sexual responsiveness: Sex differences

Male (30) and female (30) college undergraduate subjects were shown five photographic slides depicting different heterosexual behaviors and one slide depicting solitary masturbation by a person of the same sex as the subject. Subjects rated the extent to which they found each of the slides sexually arousing and pleasant or unpleasant and indicated how many times they had personally engaged in each of the depicted activities. Following exposure to the slides, sexual arousal and emotional reactions were assessed. Contrary to the propositions of Kinsey et al. (1953), female heterosexual experience was equal to or superior to masturbation experience as an indicant of female sexual reactivity to the erotic materials. Among males, masturbation experience was superior to heterosexual experience as an indicant of sexual reactivity. The role of affective reactions to sexual experiences as determinants of sexual responsiveness is discussed.Requests for reprints should be addressed to William Griffitt, Department of Psychology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66502.     

Condom Use and Concurrent Partnering among Heterosexually Active, African American Men: A Qualitative Report

African Americans are overrepresented among heterosexual cases of HIV/AIDS in the USA. Inconsistent condom use and concurrent partnering are two sexual behaviors driving the heterosexual HIV epidemic in the African American community. To inform the development of an HIV prevention behavioral intervention to decrease concurrent partnering and increase condom use among African American heterosexual men, we conducted formative research, including 61 structured interviews, 5 focus groups with 25 men, and 30 in-depth qualitative interviews between July and December 2009. We used a grounded theoretical approach and categorizing strategies to code and analyze the qualitative data. Results around condom use confirmed earlier findings among heterosexual men in general: condoms diminish pleasure, interfere with erection, and symbolize infidelity. Although valued by some as a form of disease prevention and pregnancy prevention, condoms are often used only with specific types of female partners, such as new or casual partners, or due to visual risk assessment. Sex partner concurrency was described as normative and ascribed to men’s “natural” desire to engage in a variety of sexual activities or their high sex drive, with little recognition of the role it plays in the heterosexual HIV epidemic. Fatherhood emerged among many men as a crucial life event and compelling motivation for reducing sexual risk behavior. Based on these results, we conclude that existing HIV prevention efforts to improve attitudes towards and motivate use of condoms either have not reached or have not been successful with African American heterosexual men. In designing behavioral interventions to decrease concurrent partnering and increase condom use, addressing negative attitudes towards condoms and partner risk assessment is critical, as is integrating novel motivational approaches related to identity as fathers and men in the African American community.     

Self-reported frequency of sexual urges,fantasies, and masturbatory fantasies in heterosexual males and females

The frequency of sexual imagery outside of sexual behavior was assessed. In addition, an attempt was made to determine the viability of a distinction between internally generated sexual thoughts (fantasy) and externally provoked sexual thoughts (urge). After a 3-day practice period, 49 male and 47 female heterosexual undergraduates self-monitored the frequency of fantasies, urges, and masturbatory fantasies for 7 consecutive days. The most significant finding was that men reported a significantly greater frequency of sexual urges and masturbatory fantasies than women. No gender differences emerged with respect to fantasies. These findings suggest that a distinction between internally and externally generated sexual imagery is viable and may be useful in future studies examining the frequency, functions, and determinants of sexual imagery.     

Extra Relationship Involvement Among Women: Are They Different From Men?

Factors related to three types of Extra Relationship Involvement (ERI) in women were explored: emotional ERI, sexual ERI, and a combination of sexual and emotional ERIs. A model, based on a decision-making model of male ERI and the additional variable of commitment, was evaluated. The research involved two studies with female participants (N = 112, N = 44) who had been involved in heterosexual relationships of at least 6-month duration. The major finding was that women engage in emotional and combined ERIs but rarely enter into solely sexual ERIs. It was demonstrated that social norms, planning, relationship satisfaction, and commitment were influential in predicting emotional and combined ERI intentions. Past ERI behavior was a strong predictor of future emotional and combined ERI behavior, but planning also added to the prediction of combined ERI behavior. Women who had engaged in emotional ERIs and combined ERIs indicated romantic affect as the main reason for their ERI behavior. Overall, it was demonstrated that women's intentions to engage in ERI were related to cognitive processes and relationship variables, and that ERI behavior, although generally habitual, was also predicted by cognitive processes.     

云南省2015年新报告988例非婚异性传播HIV/AIDS病例性行为及影响因素分析

目的 了解人类免疫缺陷病毒（human immunodeficiency virus,HIV）感染者/获得性免疫缺陷综合征（acquired immunodeficiency syndrome,AIDS）患者经非婚异性性接触感染的高危性行为特点及其影响因素,为控制艾滋病经性传播策略制定提供科学数据。方法 连续抽取云南省2015年新报告非婚异性传播HIV/AIDS病例,进行问卷调查,了解调查对象获知感染HIV前后危险行为等情况。结果 调查男性498人、女性490人。获知感染HIV前一年内有商业性行为的比例为39.88%（男性占68.67%,女性占10.61%）,性别差异有统计学意义（χ2=352.797,P<0.001）,地点集中在路边店/街头,坚持使用安全套比例仅为8.38%;71.36%有临时性伴间性行为（男性占64.46%,女性占78.37%）,且性别差异有统计学意义（χ2=23.379,P<0.001）,临时性伴主要是朋友/熟人（占82.52%）;存在多种性行为交叉和叠加。获知感染HIV后仍有12.96%发生高危性行为,仅31.86%愿意告知性伴自身的感染状况。结论 异性传播影响人群扩大,控制异性传播的策略应转为在强化高危人群干预工作基础上,倡导全民推广使用安全套的普遍防护,宣传教育时增加风险行为识别和安全性行为警示性教育,艾滋病感染者随访管理工作中应评估其传播风险并采取相应措施。     

梅州市一所高校学生性观念及性行为调查

目的了解梅州市嘉应学院医学院大学一年级男、女生的性观念及性行为，为开展有效的大学生性健康教育提供依据。方法使用自行设计的调查问卷，对梅州市嘉应学院医学院1840名大学一年级男、女生进行调查。结果有33．69％的学生希望在大学期间有性行为，42．93％的学生赞成上学期间的性行为，4．34％的学生上学期间有过性行为，男、女生在以上项目中的差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）；男生在获取性知识的途径主要为电子媒体和书刊杂志，女生主要为书刊杂志和同伴，二者之间有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。结论大学一年级是性意识性观念形成的关键时期，应及时开展性健康教育，但在教育方式和内容上男、女生应有所区别。     

Sexual Partner Preference in Female Japanese Macaques

Whether animals ever exhibit a preference for same-sex sexual partners is a subject of debate. Japanese macaques represent excellent models for examining issues related to sexual preference in animals because females, in certain populations, routinely engage in both heterosexual and homosexual behavior over the course of their life spans. Multiple lines of evidence indicate that female homosexual behavior in Japanese macaques is a sexual behavior, not a sociosexual one. Additional evidence indicates that female Japanese macaques do not engage in homosexual behavior simply because acceptable male mates are unavailable or unmotivated to copulate. Patterns of sexual partner choice by female Japanese macaques that are the focus of intersexual competition indicate that females of this species choose same-sex sexual partners even when they are simultaneously presented with a motivated, opposite-sex alternative. Thus, in some populations of Japanese macaques, females prefer certain same-sex sexual partners relative to certain male mates, and vice versa. Taken together, this evidence suggests that female Japanese macaques are best characterized as bisexual in orientation, not preferentially homosexual or preferentially heterosexual.     

Sexual behavior of captive orangutans

Opposite-sex pairs of orangutans were tested for sexual behavior during the intermenstrual period of the female. The male orangutan was the primary initiator of sexual interactions and initiated copulation forcefully on a daily basis, irrespective of female resistance. However, although single copulations occurred daily, copulations beyond the first occurred most frequently during midcycle. Other evidence of cyclicity in behavior was the midcycle decrease in female avoidance of the male and increased grooming, proceptivity, and masturbation by the female. Comparative analysis suggests that differences in sexual cyclicity among the great ape species are related to interspecies differences in sexual assertiveness of males and females. Sexual activity in the cycle is relatively brief when the female controls mating, more prolonged when the male is in control. This finding in man's closest taxonomic affiliates suggests that similar social factors may also influence the distribution of sexual interactions in the human cycle.This work was supported by NSF Grant BMS 75-06287 and PHS Grant RR-00165 from NIH.Presented in part at the First Annual Meeting of the International Academy of Sex Research, Stony Brook, New York, September 1975, and the Sixth Congress of the International Primatological Society, Cambridge, England, August 1976.