Intraoperative Varicocele Anatomy: A Microscopic Study of the Inguinal Versus Subinguinal Approach

PurposeThe groin approach to varicocelectomy is performed by an inguinal (aponeurosis of external oblique opened) or subinguinal (external oblique aponeurosis intact) technique. We describe the number and relationship of internal and external spermatic arteries, veins and lymphatics within the subinguinal portion of the spermatic cord in infertile men undergoing microscopic varicocelectomy and compare these findings to the microanatomy observed with the inguinal approach.Materials and MethodsA total of 48 consecutive patients underwent 84 microsurgical subinguinal varicocelectomies during which the detailed intraoperative microanatomy of the spermatic cord and gubernacula was recorded. These observations were compared with a previously reported group of 83 consecutive patients that underwent 115 inguinal varicocelectomies. Subinguinal microscopic findings were also evaluated relative to clinical varicocele grade.ResultsThe spermatic cord in the subinguinal dissection was characterized by a smaller number of large (greater than 5 mm) internal spermatic veins and a greater number of small (less than 2 mm) internal spermatic veins than the cord in the inguinal dissection (mean 0.4 vs 1.9 large veins and mean 7.9 vs 4.7 small veins, respectively). The subinguinal dissection was also characterized by a significantly greater percentage of external spermatic veins greater than 2 mm than that observed during inguinal dissection (93% vs 74%, respectively, p <0.05). Multiple spermatic arteries were identified in 75% of subinguinal dissections and in only 31% of inguinal dissections (p <0.03). Internal spermatic arteries were surrounded by a dense complex of adherent veins in 95% of cases using the subinguinal approach, whereas this finding was true in only 30% of cases with the inguinal approach (p <0.001). The clinical grade of a varicocele was significantly associated with the number of internal spermatic veins greater than 2 mm found intraoperatively (p <0.001) but not with the maximum internal spermatic vein diameter.ConclusionsAlthough the subinguinal approach to microsurgical varicocelectomy obviates the need to open the aponeurosis of the external oblique, it is associated with a greater number of internal spermatic veins and arteries compared with the inguinal approach. The primary branch point for the testicular artery occurs most commonly during its course through the inguinal canal. Internal spermatic arteries at the subinguinal level are more than 3 times as likely to be surrounded by a dense network of adherent veins than when they are identified at the inguinal level. Taken together, these data suggest that microscopic dissection is more difficult with a subinguinal incision.     

精索血管的显微组织解剖及临床应用

目的:外环下切口和腹股沟管切口精索静脉曲张显微外科结扎术均被推荐于治疗精索静脉曲张,但手术复杂度不同。本研究旨在了解两种手术切口的精索血管显微解剖结构。方法:选择外环下切口80例,腹股沟管切口20例,术中记录精索动脉、静脉及淋巴管数量;并从10例成人尸体取材精索,经组织染色,记录两种切口水平精索动静脉数量。结果:术中中静脉(2～5 mm)在腹股沟管切口有(1.80±0.83)条,外环下切口有(3.98±1.99)条,两者差异有显著性(t=-7.536,P<0.01);静脉总数腹股沟管切口为(6.40±1.67)条,外环下切口为(9.01±2.70)条,两者差异有显著性(t=-4.071,P<0.01)。两种手术切口的小静脉(≤2 mm)、大静脉(≥5 mm)、动脉和淋巴管数量差异无显著性。尸体研究数据:在外环下水平和腹股沟水平动静脉数量差异均无显著性。结论:虽然外环下水平精索静脉总数及中静脉数量均多于腹股沟管水平,但中静脉并不会加大手术难度,外环下切口不会较腹股沟切口操作更复杂。     

Macroscopic and microsurgical varicocelectomy: what’s the intraoperative difference?

Purpose

Many authors reported that microsurgical varicocelectomy was among the best treatment modalities for varicocele. However, the difference in intraoperative anatomic detail between macroscopic and microsurgical varicocele repair in the same spermatic cord has not been critically discussed.

Methods

Between August 2010 and February 2011, 32 men with 42 sides’ grade 2–3 varicocele were enrolled in this study. One surgeon firstly mimicked the modified open varicocelectomy by identifying, isolating, and marking the presumed internal spermatic veins, lymphatics, and arteries. Another surgeon then checked the same spermatic cord using operating microscope to investigate the number of missed veins, to be ligated lymphatics and arteries in the “imitative” open varicocelectomy.

Results

There were significant differences in the average number of internal spermatic arteries (1.67 vs. 0.91), internal spermatic veins (6.45 vs. 4.31), and lymphatics (2.93 vs. 1.17) between microscopic and macroscopic procedure (P < 0.001, P < 0.001, P < 0.001, respectively). Meanwhile, an average of 2.14 ± 1.26 internal spermatic veins was missed; among them, 1.63 ± 1.32 internal spermatic veins adherent to the preserved testicular artery were overlooked. The number of 0.69 ± 0.84 lymphatics and 0.74 ± 0.74 arteries were to be ligated in “macroscopic varicocelectomy.” A number of 1.07 ± 1.11 lymphatics were neither identified nor ligated. In addition, in 2 cases, the vasal vessels of the vas deferens were to be ligated at macroscopic procedure.

Conclusions

Microsurgical varicocelectomy could preserve more internal spermatic arteries and lymphatic and ligate more veins which may interpret the superiority of microsurgical varicocele repair.     

腹股沟下途径显微技术精索静脉输精管同时结扎1例报告并文献复习

目的：探讨显微技术下同时施行输精管和精索静脉结扎术的安全性和有效性.方法：患者,39岁,因计划生育政策需行输精管结扎,患者合并双侧精索静脉曲张（右侧Ⅱ度,左侧Ⅰ度）以及右阴囊坠胀不适,显微技术下同时施行输精管和精索静脉结扎术.结果：1、3、6个月分别复诊,患者无阴囊不适感;触诊以及阴囊超声未见阴囊及其内容物水肿征象,右侧精索静脉无曲张复发,无睾丸萎缩.3个月辅助检查精液中无精子.结论：显微技术下同时施行输精管结扎和精索静脉结扎术,既保护淋巴管、睾丸动脉,又可以明确保留输精管脉管系统的完整性,保证了睾丸的充分的静脉回流,安全、有效.     

Loupe-assisted versus microscopic varicocelectomy： s there an intraoperative anatomic difference？

The aim of this study was to compare the intraoperative difference in anatomic details between Ioupe-assisted and microscopic varicocelectomy within the same spermatic cord. Between April 2011 and August 2011, 26 men with 33 sides containing grade 2-3 varicocele were enrolled in this study. First, one surgeon performed the open inguinal varicocelectomy under x 3.5 Ioupe magnification. The presumed vascular channels and lymphatics were isolated and marked without ligation. Another surgeon then microsurgically dissected and checked the same spermatic cord using an operating microscope to judge the results in terms of the ligation of the internal spermatic veins and the preservation of the arteries and lymphatics. There were significant differences in the average number of internal spermatic arteries （1.51 vs 0.97）, internal spermatic veins （5.70 vs 4.39） and lymphatics （3.52 vs 1.61） between the microscope and Ioupe-assisted procedures （P 〈 0.001, P 〈 0.001, P 〈 0.001, respectively）. Meanwhile, in varicocele repair with Ioupe magnification, an average of 1.30 β± 1.07 （43/33） internal spermatic veins per side were missed, among the overlooked veins, 1.12 ± 0.93 （37/33） were adhered to the preserved testicular artery, as well as 0.55 ± 0.79 lymphatics and 0.36 ± 0.55 arteries that were to be ligated. In conclusion, microscopic varicocelectomy could preserve more internal spermatic arteries and lymphatics and could ligate more veins than the Ioupe-assisted procedure. To some degree, Ioupe magnification is inadequate for the reliable identification and dissection of the tiny vessels of the spermatic cord, as most of the overlooked veins were adhered to the preserved testicular artery.     

Microsurgical inguinal varicocelectomy with delivery of the testis: an artery and lymphatic sparing technique.

Conventional techniques of varicocele repair are associated with substantial risks of hydrocele formation, ligation of the testicular artery, and varicocele recurrence. We describe a microsurgical technique of varicocelectomy that significantly lowers the incidence of these complications. The testicle is delivered through a 2 to 3 cm. inguinal incision, and all external spermatic and gubernacular veins are ligated. The testis is returned to the scrotum and the spermatic cord is dissected under the operating microscope. The testicular artery and lymphatics are identified and preserved. All internal spermatic veins are doubly ligated with small hemoclips or 4-zero silk and divided. The vas deferens and its vessels are preserved. Initially, we performed 33 conventional inguinal varicocelectomies in 24 men without delivery of the testis or use of a microscope. Postoperatively, 3 unilateral hydroceles (9%) and 3 unilateral recurrences (9%) were detected. For the next 12 cases 2.5x loupes were used resulting in no hydroceles but another recurrence (8%). We then performed 640 varicocelectomies in 429 men using the microsurgical technique with delivery of the testis. Among 382 men available for followup examination from 6 months to 7 years postoperatively no hydroceles and no cases of testicular atrophy were found. A total of 4 unilateral recurrent varicoceles (0.6%) was identified. The differences between the techniques in the incidence of hydrocele formation and varicocele recurrence are highly significant (p < 0.001). No wound infections occurred in any men. Four scrotal hematomas (0.6%), 1 of which required surgical drainage, occurred in the group with microsurgical ligation and delivery of the testis compared to none with the conventional technique. Preoperative and postoperative semen analyses (mean 3.57 analyses per patient) were obtained on 271 men. The changes in sperm count x 10(6) cc (36.9 to 46.8, p < 0.001), per cent motility (39.6 to 45.7%, p < 0.001) and per cent normal forms (48.4 to 52.10%, p < 0.001) were highly significant. The pregnancy rate was 152 of 357 couples (43%) followed for a minimum of 6 months postoperatively. Delivery of the testis through a small inguinal incision provides direct visual access to all possible avenues of testicular venous drainage. The operating microscope allows identification of the testicular artery, lymphatics and small venous channels. This minimally invasive, outpatient technique results in a significant decrease in the incidence of hydrocele formation, testicular artery injury and varicocele recurrence.     

Varicocele anatomy during subinguinal microsurgical varicocelectomy in Chinese men

Knowledge of subinguinal microsurgical varicocelectomy is of fundamental importance to ensure that varicocele is resolved and testicular function is preserved. Our study aimed to describe the number of veins, arteries and lymphatics in the subinguinal spermatic cord and to clarify their differences between two sides, between patients with different complaints and between varicoceles with different clinical grades. A total of 102 consecutive patients underwent 162 primary subinguinal microsurgical varicocelectomies, during which the number of vessels with different diameters was recorded. A mean number of 12.9 internal spermatic veins, 0.9 external spermatic veins, 1.8 internal spermatic arteries and 2.9 lymphatics were identified per cord. 88.2% of the internal spermatic arteries were surrounded by a dense complex of adherent veins. The external spermatic vein or veins were found in 49.4% of the cases. The mean number of medium (1–3 mm in diameter) internal spermatic veins on the left was larger than that on the right (P < 0.001). The mean number of medium internal spermatic veins in grade III varicocele was larger than that in grade I or grade II (P < 0.015). There was no significant anatomical difference between the men presenting for infertility, chronic testicular pain and both the two complaints.     

Intraoperative varicocele anatomy: a macroscopic and microscopic study.

Varicoceles are found in approximately 15% of all men in the general population and up to 41% of all infertile men. However, the exact location and relationship of internal and external spermatic arteries, veins and lymphatics within the inguinal portion of the spermatic cord have not been previously well described in infertile men. The results of detailed intraoperative macroscopic and microscopic surgical dissections of the spermatic cord and gubernaculum of 83 infertile men with 115 palpable varicoceles are described. Enlarged veins exiting the testis and traversing the gubernaculum were present in 48% of the dissections. Enlarged external spermatic veins were detected in 74% of all spermatic cords. Typically, small internal spermatic veins drained into a large vein more proximally in the spermatic cord. An average of 3.6 lymphatics per spermatic cord was identified and preserved during the dissections. A solitary testicular artery was observed in 69% of the dissections. The testicular artery was adherent to the posterior surface of a large internal spermatic vein in 50% of the dissections and was surrounded by a dense complex of closely adherent veins in 30%. To decrease the incidence of postoperative varicocele recurrences we suggest a surgical approach that addresses all identifiable dilated and connecting veins. These findings suggest that surgical approaches that include intraoperative access to and ligation of low inguinal (external spermatic) and gubernacular veins may cause fewer recurrences, unligated small internal spermatic veins may be a cause of varicocele recurrence, and large internal spermatic veins should be individually identified, dissected and ligated since the testicular artery and lymphatics are often adherent to these veins. Optical magnification is important to facilitate identification of lymphatics, testicular arteries and small internal spermatic veins.     

Modified high varicocelectomy: outpatient microsurgical procedure

Fifty patients underwent modified high varicocelectomy as outpatients. Twelve of the 22 unilateral varicocelectomies were performed under local anesthesia. All patients tolerated the procedures well, and none required admission to the hospital. The modified high approach, which exposes the area above the internal inguinal ring and of the posterior spermatic cord, is straightforward and insures that both internal spermatic and cremasteric veins can be ligated. Use of the operating microscope prevents the inadvertent ligation of the testicular artery and lymphatics.     

Herniotomy as a cause of male infertility

The article deals with 8 cases of iatrogenic obstruction of the vas deferens after herniotomy for inguinal hernia, the consequence of which was sterility. Anastomosis of the vas deferens was formed in 6 patients by means of precision microsurgical manipulations; the spermatological indices improved markedly in 3 of them, which was evidence of restored passage of the semen. To avoid injury to the spermatic cord, the author recommends microsurgical techniques in treatment of the hernial sac in children with congenital inguinal hernia.     

Intra-abdominal testis with loop-like epididymis and intra-canalicular vas and vessels

A case of intra-abdominal testis with loop-like epididymis and intra-canalicular vas and vessels is presented. A 3-year-old male with left impalpable testis since birth was admitted to our department. Physical examination and ultrasonography were inconclusive. Laparoscopy revealed a small left abdominal testis with surrounding adhesions close to the left-obliterated umbilical artery. The vas deferens and spermatic vessels were entering into the internal inguinal ring. The processus vaginalis was patent. At inguinal exploration the testis was atrophic and the epididymis was loop-like, joining the vas deferens in the inguinal canal. The spermatic vessels continued to the atrophic testis in a loop-like manner. The testis, epididymis and the vas deferens were removed. Histopathological examination of the testis revealed Sertoli cells only. If inguinal exploration had been performed without laparoscopy, the presence of the vas deferens and spermatic vessels in the inguinal canal with the absence of the testis could have been misdiagnosed as vanishing testis. Abdominal testis would thus have been missed, with increased risk of complications, particularly malignancy.     

Scrotal nubbins associated with blind-ending spermatic vessels and a normal vas deferens on laparoscopy

Objectives:   To determine whether a scrotal nubbin is present in children with unilateral non-palpable testis when diagnostic laparoscopy demonstrates blind-ending vessels and a normal vas deferens entering a closed internal ring.
Methods:   Eighty consecutive patients with a unilateral nonpalpable testis were retrospectively reviewed. Patients underwent initial diagnostic laparoscopy, and, if needed, subsequent inguinal exploration was performed. On inguinal exploration, any testicular remnant or nubbin-like tissue was removed and evaluated histologically. Patients with a patent processus vaginalis were excluded from this analysis.
Results:   Overall, 60 of the 80 patients had neither an abdominal testis nor a patent processus vaginalis. Of these 60, 34 patients had both a vas deferens and spermatic vessels entering a closed internal ring, and all of these underwent inguinal exploration. A total of 17 patients had both a blind-ending vas deferens and blind-ending spermatic vessels; no inguinal exploration was attempted. In nine patients, laparoscopy revealed blind-ending vessels with a normal vas deferens entering the closed internal ring. Of these nine, six underwent inguinal exploration, and a scrotal nubbins was found in three. At histological examination, hemosiderin deposit and calcification were seen in the nubbin tissue. No viable germ cell was detected in these specimens.
Conclusions:   A laparoscopic finding of blind-ending vessels above the closed internal ring does not mean intra-abdominal vanished testis, regardless of the appearance of the vas deferens.     

Laparoscopic diagnosis and treatment of nonpalpable testis

OBJECTIVE: Laparoscopy has become one of the important diagnostic modalities of nonpalpable testis and has been developed and applied in the treatment of this disease. In the present study, we investigated the usefulness of laparoscopy in the diagnosis and treatment of nonpalpable testis. METHODS: Laparoscopy was carried out under general anesthesia on 21 patients (23 testes) from October 1991 to October 1999. If the internal spermatic vessels and vas deferens made their way into the internal inguinal ring, the inguinal canal was dissected with an incision in the inguinal region to look for the testis. Patients with intra-abdominal testis underwent laparoscopic orchiopexy or orchiectomy. If the internal spermatic vessels terminated with a blind end intraperitoneally, making it impossible to identify the testis, the case was judged to be vanishing testis and the operation was finalized without any further examination. RESULTS: In eight of 23 testes (35%), the internal spermatic vessels and vas deferens made their way into the internal inguinal ring. The inguinal region was examined in all the eight testes. Orchiopexy was carried out on two testes and orchiectomy was carried out on six testes. An intra-abdominal testis was detected in eight of 23 testes (35%). Laparoscopic orchiopexy was carried out on seven testes. One-stage orchiopexy was carried out on two of the seven testes and two-stage Fowler-Stephens orchiopexy was carried out on five of the seven testes. Orchiectomy was carried out on the remaining testis. Blocking or lack of the internal spermatic vessels and vas deferens was seen in seven of the 23 testes (30%) and this condition was diagnosed as vanishing testis. CONCLUSION: Laparoscopy for nonpalpable testis is considered to be the most effective technique for diagnosing the presence or absence of the testis and the location of the testis.     

显微外科吻合术治疗医源性腹股沟输精管梗阻

目的总结腹股沟区手术输精管损伤后的再通治疗经验。方法2005年7月至今收治11例有双侧腹股沟手术史的梗阻性无精子症患者,手术探查腹股沟区均证实输精管损伤,完全离断4例,断端以细弱瘢痕相连的7例,采用手术显微镜下精微对位多层吻合输精管再通术。结果全部病例中10例行再通手术,7例术后精液检测发现精子。结论腹股沟区手术损伤后的输精管再通手术难度较大,显微镜下精微对位多层吻合输精管再通术是治疗腹股沟区输精管损伤的首选方案。     

腹股沟疝修补术中生殖功能损伤对策

不育、不孕及性功能障碍等生殖功能损伤是腹股沟疝修补术后的一种罕见并发症。男性腹股沟疝与精索解剖关系密切,精索血管损伤可以导致缺血性睾丸炎、睾丸萎缩以及内分泌功能障碍,输精管损伤可以导致梗阻性无精症,均可能引起不育。因此,各类腹股沟疝手术对于精索完整性的保护操作一直是强调的重点。此外,睾丸缺血、输精管损伤或梗阻还可能造成血睾屏障破坏,使机体产生抗精子抗体而导致免疫性不育,这也需要外科医生予以重视。     

腹膜后切口与腹股沟管切口显微镜下精索静脉结扎治疗精索静脉曲张的对比研究

目的 对精索静脉曲张患者采用腹膜后切口显微镜下精索静脉结扎和腹股沟管切口显微镜下精索静脉结扎术进行治疗,对比观察两种术式的手术切口对精索血管的影响.方法 采用前瞻性随机对照研究,将2014年3月至2015年1月本院泌尿外科住院的原发性精索静脉曲张患者98例随机分为两组,观察组50例采用腹膜后切口显微镜下精索静脉结扎,对照组48例采用腹股沟管切口显微镜下精索静脉结扎,术中观察记录精索血管数量并进行对比分析.结果 观察组静脉总数为(3.50±1.07)条,对照组为(5.01±1.70)条,差异有统计学意义(t =4.570,P=0.000);观察组中静脉(2～5mm)为(2.98±0.83)条,对照组为(4.08±1.69)条,差异有统计学意义(t =3.088,P=0.003).两种手术切口的小静脉(≤2mm)、大静脉(≥5mm)、动脉和淋巴管数量差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 腹膜后水平精索静脉总数及中静脉数量均少于腹股沟管水平,且此水平无输精管及输精管静脉无提睾肌静脉,静脉均为精索内静脉,因此腹膜后切口较腹股沟切口操作更简单.     

Duplicated vas deferens: A case report and comprehensive review of the literature

Duplication of vas deferens is a very rare anomaly which two vasa deferentia are found in the spermatic cord. It can be recognised during autopsy or cadaveric dissection and also several surgical procedures which require spermatic cord dissection including inguinal hernia repair, orchiopexy, vasectomy, varicocelectomy, vasectomy reversal and radical prostatectomy. Recognition of the duplicated vas deferens is important to avoid surgical complications such as an unsuccessful vasectomy or transection of the vas. It was reported in only three cadavers and 31 patients since 1959. In this study, we describe a new case of duplicated vas deferens found incidentally during routine inguinal hernia repair in a 66-year-old patient. We also review all previously reported cases in the literature to draw attention to this rare but important anomaly.     

Optical magnification and Doppler ultrasound probe for varicocelectomy

Varicocelectomy is usually considered a simple urologic operation. However, it is most frequently difficult to visualize and identify the 0.5 mm internal spermatic artery and tiny lymphatic channels when cutting and ligating the internal spermatic veins. The internal spermatic artery and tiny lymphatic channels can be damaged easily, cut, or ligated during this procedure. This occurs surprisingly more often than is realized by the surgeon. By introducing optical magnification or the operating microscope at the time the veins are identified, the surgeon can easily find and dissect off adherent lymphatics or the internal spermatic artery with some microsurgical instruments, and thereby preserve these vessels rather than cut or damage them inadvertently. The sterile Doppler probe also can be utilized to help identify and confirm the location of the internal spermatic artery if it is not easily found in the spermatic cord.