Lifecourse socioeconomic trajectories and C-reactive protein levels in young adults: Findings from a Brazilian birth cohort

Socioeconomic factors are associated with cardiovascular disease. C-reactive protein (CRP) is increasingly implicated as a candidate linking conventional risk factors and atherosclerosis. The impact of early- and later-life socioeconomic status (SES) on CRP levels has not been widely investigated and a handful of studies from high-income countries are inconsistent. We set out to examine the associations between lifecourse socioeconomic indicators (family income at birth, maternal education, family income at age 23 and own education) on CRP levels in young adults belonging to the 1982 Pelotas (Brazil) Birth Cohort Study (n = 5914). Early-life SES showed significant and graded associations with CRP levels at age 23 independently of later SES. For example, men with higher family income at birth showed higher CRP levels at age 23 (p = 0.001 for trend) and women with less educated mothers showed higher CRP levels (p = 0.01 for trend). Notably, differential directions of association between SES indicators and CRP levels between men and women were found. When adjusted for SES at age 23, men with the lowest family income at birth showed 42% lower CRP levels when compared to men in the highest family income group (−42; 95% CI: -60,-16). In contrast women born to the least educated mothers had the highest CRP levels (35; 95% CI -2, 86). In both sexes, adiposity accounted for the overwhelming majority of the associations between SES and CRP levels. Sex and gender roles specific to middle-income countries, socio-cultural and environmental conditions that may impact adiposity, and the level of epidemiological transition may be key factors that are linked to the associations between lifecourse SES and CRP levels. Public health strategies aimed at decreasing the burden of cardiovascular disease in middle-income settings, in addition to highlighting the risks associated with adult obesity, should not overlook the wide-ranging impacts of lifecourse social determinants.     

Risk factors for overweight in children from Southern Brazil

Risk factors for overweight were investigated in a cross-sectional survey of children aged 12-59 months in the Southern Brazilian city of Porto Alegre (n = 2,660). Odds ratios (OR) for overweight, defined by weight/height > 2 z-scores of the NCHS standards, were estimated for socioeconomic and demographic conditions, social environment, and childhood health events. Prevalence of overweight was 6.5%. In the multivariate model, the odds of overweight were positively associated with maternal education (schooling > 12 years, OR = 2.36; 95%CI: 1.21-4.60; 9-11 years, OR = 2.07; 95%CI: 1.16-3.70) and family income per capita > 2 times the minimum wage (OR = 1.86; 95%CI: 1.13-3.08) and negatively associated with maternal work (OR = 0.72; 95%CI: 0.52-0.99). Odds were higher for children born large-for-gestational-age (OR = 2.29; 95%CI: 1.36-3.85) and lower for children born small (OR = 0.57; 95%CI: 0.33-0.99), as compared to those born with adequate birth weight for gestational age. Paternal schooling, parental occupation, and maternal age at the child's birth were associated with overweight in the unadjusted model only. Programs are needed to prevent overweight during childhood, with special attention to families and children at increased risk.     

Socioeconomic status in relation to selected birth defects in a large multicentered US case-control study

This study examined individual and household socioeconomic status (SES) in relation to phenotypes of neural tube defects, orafacial clefts, and conotruncal heart defects using data from the National Birth Defects Prevention Study with 2,551 nonmalformed liveborn controls and 1,841 cases delivered in 1997-2000. The individual SES was measured by maternal and paternal education, occupation, and household income. All individual SES measures were combined to create a household SES index. Elevated risks were found for maternal low education in association with anencephaly and dextrotransposition of the great arteries (dTGA) (adjusted odds ratios (AORs) > or = 1.4); paternal low education in association with anencephaly, cleft palate, tetralogy of Fallot (TOF), and dTGA (AORs > or = 1.4); low household income in association with TOF (AOR = 1.4, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.8, 2.5); maternal operator/laborer occupation in association with cleft palate, TOF, and dTGA (AORs > or = 1.4); paternal operator/laborer occupation in association with spina bifida (AOR = 1.4, 95% CI: 1.0, 2.0); and either parent's unemployment in association with dTGA (AOR > or = 1.4). Subjects with the lowest household SES index had the greatest risks of all selected birth defects except TOF. This study reveals consistently increased risks of selected birth defects in association with household SES index but not individual SES measures.     

Impact of objective and subjective social status on obesity in a biracial cohort of adolescents

OBJECTIVE: To characterize the associations between socioeconomic status (SES), two levels of subjective social status (SSS), and adolescent obesity. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Cross-sectional study of 1491 black and white adolescents attending public school in a suburban school district in Greater Cincinnati, Ohio. BMI > or =95th percentile derived from measured height and weight defined overweight. Students rated SSS on separate 10-point scales for society and school. A parent provided information on parent education and household income for SES. RESULTS: Although there were no sex differences in SES, black students were more likely to come from families with less well-educated parents and lower incomes (p < 0.001). Black girls had the lowest societal SSS (p = 0.003), lowest school SSS (p = 0.046), and highest BMI (p < 0.001). Prevalence of overweight was highest among black girls (26.0%) and boys (26.2%), intermediate for white boys (17.2%), and least for white girls (11.6%). Logistic regression modeling revealed that parent education, household income, and school SSS were each associated with overweight. In a fully adjusted model, school SSS retained its association to overweight (odds ratio, 1.16; 95% CI, 1.06,1.26) independent of SES. The association of school SSS was strongest among white girls, intermediate for white and black boys, and absent for black girls. DISCUSSION: Perceptions of social stratification are independently associated with overweight. There were important racial and sex differences in the social status-overweight association. SSS in the more immediate, local reference group, the school, had the strongest association to overweight.     

Disparities in exposure to air pollution during pregnancy

Previous research shows poorer birth outcomes for racial and ethnic minorities and for persons with low socioeconomic status (SES). We evaluated whether mothers in groups at higher risk for poor birth outcomes live in areas of higher air pollution and whether higher exposure to air pollution contributes to poor birth outcomes. An index representing long-term exposure to criteria air pollutants was matched with birth certificate data at the county level for the United States in 1998-1999. We used linear regression to estimate associations between the air pollution index and maternal race and educational attainment, a marker for SES of the mother, controlling for age, parity, marital status, and region of the country. Then we used logistic regression models both to estimate likelihood of living in counties with the highest levels of air pollution for different racial groups and by educational attainment, adjusting for other maternal risk factors, and to estimate the effect of living in counties with higher levels of air pollution on preterm delivery and births small for gestational age (SGA). Hispanic, African-American, and Asian/Pacific Islander mothers experienced higher mean levels of air pollution and were more than twice as likely to live in the most polluted counties compared with white mothers after controlling for maternal risk factors, region, and educational status [Hispanic mothers: adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 4.66; 95% confidence interval (95% CI), 1.92-11.32; African-American mothers: AOR = 2.58; 95% CI, 1.00-6.62; Asian/Pacific Islander mothers: AOR = 2.82; 95% CI, 1.07-7.39]. Educational attainment was not associated with living in counties with highest levels of the air pollution index (AOR = 0.95; 95% CI, 0.40-2.26) after adjusting for maternal risk factors, region of the country, and race/ethnicity. There was a small increase in the odds of preterm delivery (AOR = 1.05; 95% CI, 0.99-1.12) but not SGA (AOR = 0.96; 95% CI, 0.86-1.07) in a county with high air pollution. Additional risk of residing in areas with poor air quality may exacerbate health problems of infants and children already at increased risk for poor health.     

Race disparities in cardiovascular disease risk factors within socioeconomic status strata

Purpose

Racial differences in socioeconomic status (SES) explain some, but not all, of racial disparities in cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. To address this, race disparities among higher SES individuals need to be assessed. The purpose of this study was to assess whether racial disparities in CVD risk factors differ by SES levels.

Association Between Socioeconomic Status and Obesity in Adults: Evidence From the 2001 to 2009 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Objectives

The present study examined relationships between socioeconomic status (SES) and obesity and body mass index (BMI) as well as the effects of health-related behavioral and psychological factors on the relationships.

Methods

A cross-sectional population-based study was conducted on Korean adults aged 20 to 79 years using data from the 2001, 2005, and 2007 to 2009 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Multivariate logistic and linear regression models were used to estimate odds ratios of obesity and mean differences in BMI, respectively, across SES levels after controlling for health-related behavioral and psychological factors.

Results

We observed significant gender-specific relationships of SES with obesity and BMI after adjusting for all covariates. In men, income, but not education, showed a slightly positive association with BMI (p<0.05 in 2001 and 2005). In women, education, but not income, was inversely associated with both obesity and BMI (p<0.0001 in all datasets). These relationships were attenuated with adjusting for health-related behavioral factors, not for psychological factors.

Conclusions

Results confirmed gender-specific disparities in the associations of SES with obesity and BMI among adult Korean population. Focusing on intervention for health-related behaviors may be effective to reduce social inequalities in obesity.     

Income is a stronger predictor of mortality than education in a national sample of US adults

Low socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with mortality in several populations. SES measures, such as education and income, may operate through different pathways. However, the independent effect of each measure mutually adjusting for the effect of other SES measures is not clear. The association between poverty-income ratio (PIR) and education and all-cause mortality among 15,646 adults, aged >20 years, who participated in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey in the USA, was examined. The lower PIR quartiles and less than high school education were positively associated with all-cause mortality in initial models adjusting for the demographic, lifestyle and clinical risk factors. After additional adjustment for education, the lower PIR quartiles were still significantly associated with all-cause mortality. The multivariable odds ratio (OR) [95% confidence interval (CI)] of all-cause mortality comparing the lowest to the highest quartile of PIR was 2.11 (1.52-2.95, p trend < or = 0.0001). In contrast, after additional adjustment for income, education was no longer associated with all-cause mortality [multivariable OR (95% CI) of all-cause mortality comparing less than high school to more than high school education was 1.05 (0.85-1.31, p trend=0.57)]. The results suggest that income may be a stronger predictor of mortality than education, and narrowing the income differentials may reduce the health disparities.     

A low socio-economic status is an additional risk factor for glucose intolerance in high risk Hong Kong Chinese

To examine whether a low socio-economic status (SES) is an additional risk factor for glucose intolerance in Hong Kong Chinese with known risk factors for glucose intolerance, a total of 2847 Chinese subjects (473 men and 2374 women) were recruited from the community for assessment. They had known risk factors for glucose intolerance including a previous history of gestational diabetes, positive family history of diabetes in first degree relatives and equivocal fasting plasma glucose concentrations between 7 and 8 mmol/l or random plasma glucose concentrations between 8 and 11 mmol/l. The 2847 subjects were classified according to their education levels and occupations: education group 1 = high school or university, group 2 = middle school, group 3 = illiterate or up to elementary school; occupational group 1 = professional or managerial, group 2 = non-manual, group 3 = manual, group 4 = unskilled, group 5 = housewife or unemployed. Different socio-economic groups were well represented in this selected population. The distribution of educational groups in this study was similar to that recorded in the 1991 Hong Kong Census. When analysed according to education levels and after adjustment for age, women in the lowest social class had the highest prevalence of diabetes, body mass index, blood pressure and plasma glucose concentrations. Men with the lowest education level had the highest prevalence of diabetes after age adjustment. The age-adjusted odds ratio (95% confidence intervals) of having diabetes was 2.3 (1.3, 4.3) in female subjects and 2.5 (1.2, 5.4) in male subjects with the lowest SES compared to subjects with the highest SES. When categorised according to occupation and after adjustment for age, women in the lowest social class had the highest prevalence of diabetes and glycaemic indexes. The age-adjusted odds ratio of having diabetes was 4.5 (1.9, 10.9) in female subjects with the lowest SES compared to those with the highest SES. The corresponding age-adjusted odds ratio in male subjects was 1.9 (0.9, 3.9) but this was not statistically significant. In conclusion, a lower socio-economic class, categorised either by occupational or educational level, was an additional risk factor for diabetes in Hong Kong Chinese who had known risk factors for glucose intolerance. These subjects should have increased priority for health education and regular diabetes screening. Our findings further emphasise the complex relationships between societal affluence, personal income and educational level.     

The association of personal and neighborhood socioeconomic indicators with subclinical cardiovascular disease in an elderly cohort. The cardiovascular health study

There has been recent interest in determining whether neighborhood characteristics are related to the cardiovascular health of residents. However, there are no data regarding the relationship between neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES) and prevalence of subclinical cardiovascular disease (CVD) in the elderly. We related personal SES (education, income, and occupation type) and neighborhood socioeconomic characteristics (a block-group score summing six variables reflecting neighborhood income and wealth, education, and occupation) to the prevalence of subclinical CVD (asymptomatic peripheral vascular disease or carotid atherosclerosis, electrocardiogram or echocardiogram abnormalities, and/or positive responses to Rose Questionnaire claudication or angina pectoris) among 3545 persons aged 65 and over, without prevalent CVD, in the Cardiovascular Health Study. Sixty percent of participants had at least one indicator of subclinical disease. Compared to those without, those with subclinical disease had significantly lower education, income, and neighborhood scores and were more likely to have blue-collar jobs. After adjustment for age, gender, and race, those in the lowest SES groups had increased prevalence of subclinical disease compared with those in the highest SES groups (OR = 1.50; 95% CI 1.21, 1.86 for income; OR = 1.41; 95% CI 1.18, 1.69 for education; OR = 1.39; 95% CI 1.16, 1.67 for block-group score). Those reporting a blue-collar lifetime occupation had greater prevalence of subclinical disease relative to those reporting a white-collar occupation (OR = 1.29; 95% CI 1.02-1.59). After adjustment for behavioral and biomedical risk factors, all of these associations were reduced. Neighborhood score tended to remain inversely associated with subclinical disease after adjustment for personal socioeconomic indicators but associations were not statistically significant. Personal income and blue-collar occupation remained significantly associated with subclinical disease after simultaneous adjustment for neighborhood score and education. Personal and neighborhood socioeconomic indicators were associated with subclinical disease prevalence in this elderly cohort. These relationships were reduced after controlling for traditional CVD risk factors.     

Socioeconomic status and multiple myeloma among US blacks and whites

OBJECTIVES: This study examined the relation between socioeconomic status (SES) and risk of multiple myeloma among Blacks and Whites in the United States. METHODS: This population-based case-control study included 573 cases (206 Blacks and 367 Whites) with new diagnoses of multiple myeloma identified between August 1, 1986, and April 30, 1989, and 2131 controls (967 Blacks and 1164 Whites) from 3 US geographic areas. Information on occupation, income, and education was obtained by personal interview. RESULTS: Inverse gradients in risk were associated with occupation-based SES, income, and education. Risks were significantly elevated for subjects in the lowest categories of occupation-based SES (odds ratio [OR] = 1.71, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.16, 2.53), education (OR = 1.36, 95% CI = 1.06, 1.75), and income (OR = 1.43, 95% CI = 1.05, 1.93). Occupation-based low SES accounted for 37% of multiple myeloma in Blacks and 17% in Whites, as well as 49% of the excess incidence in Blacks. Low education and low income accounted for 17% and 28% of the excess incidence in Blacks, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that the measured SES-related factors account for a substantial amount of the Black-White differential in multiple myeloma incidence.     

How income and education contribute to risk factors for cardiovascular disease in the elderly in a former Communist country

OBJECTIVES: Careful examination of the risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD) may enable clinicians to develop a reasonably preventive programme among the elderly. The main purpose of this paper was to examine the effects of income and education on CVD risk factors in an elderly population who had lived most of their lives in Communist times. METHODS: The CINDI (Countrywide Integrated Non-communicable Diseases Intervention) Programme questionnaire was used to collect data from an elderly (65+ years) population in Lodz, a large industrial city in Poland. The study population (n = 1,461) was selected at random, and the overall response rate was 57.1%. The following risk factors were evaluated: hypertension, obesity, elevated cholesterol, elevated blood sugar and smoking. RESULTS: Hypertension was the most frequently observed CVD risk factor (83.4% of participants) followed by hypercholesterolaemia (70.2%), obesity (30.5%), diabetes (18.4%) and smoking (8.5%). Hypertension and hypercholesterolaemia were related to age (OR=0.91, 95%CI: 0.88-0.95 and OR=0.95, 95%CI: 0.92-0.98, respectively). The younger people in the study population exhibited the highest prevalence of hypertension and hypercholesterolaemia; hypercholesterolaemia was observed more frequently among widowed respondents. Obesity and diabetes were associated with education level (OR=0.52, 95%CI: 0.34-0.79 and OR=0.60, 95%CI: 0.37-0.97, respectively). Younger single males with a lower level of education and income exhibited the highest prevalence of smoking. Multivariate analysis showed that age, education and gender were the best predictors for the cumulative risk factors of CVD. CONCLUSIONS: Education is more strongly associated with CVD risk factors than material status in the elderly. The best predictors of risk factors were age, sex and education. As we gain knowledge about CVD risk factors, we may be able to target preventive services in the elderly population more accurately and effectively, and help older adults make health decisions to reduce risk factors and increase their quality of life.     

社会经济地位与心理障碍相关性的多水平模型分析

目的 探讨社会经济地位(SES)与社医人群心理障碍的相关性.方法 利用浙江省15岁以上人群精神病流行病学调查数据(n=14 632),采用多水平logistic回归模型拟合个体SES维度(教育、收入、职业)和地理SES维度(居住地区)与心理障碍的相关性.心理障碍评定采用GHQ-12(分界值为3/4).结果 浙江省社区人群心理障碍的患病率为18.5%(95%CI:17.9%～19.1%),略高于河北省的16.7%(u=4.39,P＜0.001).年家庭人均收入、职业等SES指标与心理障碍相关性较大;低收入组(相对于高收入组)OR=3.45,95%CI:1.72～6.67;无业/失业组(相对于非农业劳动者)OR=2.03,95%CI:1.73～2.40;心理障碍在县(市)水平具有集聚性,但作用较小;教育程度对心理障碍无影响.结论 社区人群心理障碍与SES呈逆向梯度变化趋势,且主要与个体SES维度有关,地理SES维度(居住地区)有影响,但作用很小.     

江苏省成年居民肥胖与高血压相关关系研究

目的 探讨不同体型人群中超重肥胖、中心性肥胖与高血压患病率、知晓率、治疗率、控制率、治疗控制率相关关系。方法 采用整群随机抽样,对江苏省成年居民进行横断面调查,采用t检验、F检验分析组间差异;采用χ2检验,logistic回归模型计算OR值及95％CI。结果 江苏省成年居民BMI≥24/中心性肥胖率高达47.6%。BMI≥24/中心性肥胖人群的高血压患病率、知晓率、治疗率分别为51.2%、60.6%、54.3%,均高于其他体型人群。BMI＜18.5/非中心性肥胖人群的高血压治疗控制率最高,为60.0%。Logistic 回归分析结果表明,在调整年龄、收入、文化程度及吸烟饮酒状况后,与BMI = 18.5～23.9/非中心性肥胖相比,BMI≥24/中心性肥胖的人群高血压患病风险增加3.111倍（aOR = 3.111,95%CI = 2.665～3.632）。BMI = 18.5～23.9/中心性肥胖人群以及BMI≥24/中心性肥胖人群高血压治疗控制不良风险显著增加,调整OR值分别为0.362（95%CI = 0.155～0.845）和0.579（95%CI = 0.394～0.851）。结论 江苏省成年居民BMI≥24/中心性肥胖率较高,且高血压患病风险最高,中心性肥胖增加高血压治疗控制不良的风险。     

Socioeconomic status and aortic atherosclerosis in Dutch elderly people: the Rotterdam Study.

An inverse association has been reported between socioeconomic status (SES) and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Studies on subclinical manifestations of atherosclerotic disease are limited and have not been carried out among elderly persons. The authors investigated the relation between SES and aortic atherosclerosis among elderly people. As part of the Rotterdam Study, data on SES and atherosclerosis were collected for 4,451 persons aged 55-94 years. Atherosclerosis was estimated by radiographic assessment of calcified deposits in the abdominal aorta. Aortic atherosclerosis was more common among women in the lower educational and occupational strata. The lowest educational group and the lowest occupational group had increased risks of aortic atherosclerosis compared with the highest groups (odds ratios were 1.3 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.0-1.6) and 1.3 (95% CI 1.0-1.8), respectively). The odds ratios for severe atherosclerosis among women in the lowest socioeconomic stratum compared with those in the highest stratum were 1.6 (95% CI 1.0-2.7) for education, 2.8 (95% CI 1.1-7.5) for occupation, and 1.7 (95% CI 0.9-3.3) for income. After exclusion of persons with a history of cardiovascular disease, the same trends still emerged. No relations were observed among men. These findings show that SES is related to aortic atherosclerosis in women. This suggests that SES affects the incidence of cardiovascular disease before its clinical manifestation.     

Socioeconomic risk factors for breast cancer: distinguishing individual- and community-level effects

BACKGROUND: Women are at higher risk of breast cancer if they have higher socioeconomic status (SES) or live in higher SES or urban communities. We examined whether women living in such communities remained at greater risk of breast cancer after controlling for individual education and other known individual-level risk factors. METHODS: Data were from a population-based, breast cancer case-control study conducted in Wisconsin from 1988 to 1995 (n = 14,667). Data on community SES and urbanicity come from the 1990 census, measured at the census tract and zip code levels. We evaluated relationships between individual- and community-level variables and breast cancer risk using multilevel logistic regression models with random community intercepts. RESULTS: After controlling for individual education and other individual-level risk factors (age, mammography use, family history of breast cancer, parity, age at first birth, alcohol intake, body mass index, hormone replacement use, oral contraceptive use, and menopausal status), women living in the highest SES communities had greater odds of having breast cancer than women living in the lowest SES communities (1.20; 95% confidence interval = 1.05-1.37). Similarly, the odds were greater for women in urban versus rural communities (1.17; 1.06-1.28). CONCLUSIONS: Community SES and urbanicity are apparently not simply proxies for individual SES. Future research should examine why living in such communities itself is associated with greater risk of breast cancer.     

Childhood social and economic well-being and health in older age

Childhood socioeconomic status (SES) acts over a lifetime to influence adult health outcomes. Whether the impact of childhood SES differs by age or race/ethnicity is unclear. The authors studied 20,566 community-living US adults aged > or =50 years. Parental education was the main predictor. Outcomes evaluated (1998-2002) included self-reported health and functional limitation. The influence of childhood SES on later-life health was also examined in groups stratified by age and race/ethnicity, with adjustment for demographic factors and current SES. Participants' mean age was 67 years; 57% were women. By race/ethnicity, 76% were White, 14% were Black, and 8% were Latino. The relation between low parental education and fair/poor self-rated health declined with advancing age (age 50-64 years: adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 1.42, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.24, 1.63; age > or =80 years: AOR = 1.14, 95% CI: 0.96, 1.36). The relation between low parental education and fair/poor self-rated health differed across racial/ethnic groups and was significant in White (AOR = 1.33, 95% CI: 1.21, 1.47) and Black (AOR = 1.37, 95% CI: 1.14, 1.64) participants but not Latinos. These findings suggest that childhood SES affects health status through midlife but the effects may abate in late life; its effects also may be weaker in Latinos than in Whites or Blacks.     

深圳市居民安宁疗护接受意愿及其影响因素研究

目的 调查深圳居民接受安宁疗护及同意家人接受安宁疗护的意愿程度,了解居民对安宁疗护目的及推广阻力的认知情况,为推进安宁疗护工作提供参考。方法 采用在线问卷对深圳居民进行横断面调查,无序多分类logistic回归模型分析深圳居民接受安宁疗护及同意家人接受安宁疗护的影响因素。结果 共回收问卷5 007份,剔除无效问卷后,得到有效问卷4 772份,有效率为95.3%。深圳居民对安宁疗护的个人接受意愿和同意家人接受意愿分别为70.2%和66.2%。七成居民赞同安宁疗护的目的为减轻痛苦或缓解压力,认为安宁疗护推广的首要阻力是费用过高或医保不覆盖、以及宣传和推广不到位。平均月收入较低的居民,个人接受安宁疗护（AOR = 0.83, 95%CI: 0.69～0.99）和同意家人接受安宁疗护（AOR = 0.81, 95%CI: 0.69～0.95）的意愿均更低;有过家人朋友接受安宁疗护经历的居民,个人接受安宁疗护（AOR = 1.47, 95%CI: 1.24～1.75）和同意家人接受安宁疗护（AOR = 1.45, 95%CI: 1.23～1.71）的意愿均更高。此外,影响个人接受安宁疗护意愿的危险因素还包括受教育程度较低（AOR = 0.66, 95%CI: 0.47～0.92）,保护因素还包括安宁疗护服务意向地点为家庭（AOR = 1.28, 95%CI: 1.05～1.56）。结论 深圳居民对安宁疗护的个人和家庭接受意愿均较高,但受到月收入、教育程度、亲身经历和服务意向地点等因素的影响。开展宣传推广和生命教育活动,组织安宁疗护志愿服务,完善安宁疗护收费和居家服务体系,将有助于提升城市居民对安宁疗护的接纳意愿。     

Childhood leukaemia and socioeconomic status: fact or artefact? A report from the United Kingdom childhood cancer study (UKCCS)

BACKGROUND: It is widely believed that children of high socioeconomic status (SES) are more likely than those of low SES to develop acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL). Such observations have led to wide-ranging speculations about the potential aetiological role of factors associated with affluence and modernization. METHODS: Children (0-14 years) newly diagnosed with cancer in the UK between 1991 and 1996 were ascertained via a rapid hospital-based case finding system (n = 4430, of which 1578 were ALL). Children without cancer (controls) were randomly selected from primary care population registries for comparative purposes (n = 7763). Area-based deprivation scores were assigned as markers of SES at two time points - birth and diagnosis. An individual-based marker of SES - social class - was assigned using father's occupation as recorded on the child's birth certificate. RESULTS: No differences in area-based measures of deprivation were observed between cases and controls at time of diagnosis, either for all cancers combined [n = 4430, odds ratio (OR) = 1.00 (95% confidence intervals (CI) 0.98-1.01)] or for ALL alone (n = 1578 OR = 0.99, 95%CI 0.96-1.01). Findings were similar at time of birth (all cancers, OR = 0.99 95%CI 0.98-1.01, ALL OR = 0.98, 95%CI 0.96-1.00). In addition, no case-control differences were observed when an individual-based measure of SES - social class - based on father's occupation at time of birth was used. CONCLUSIONS: The comprehensive nature of the data, coupled with complete case-ascertainment and representative population-based controls suggests that SES in the UK is not a determinant of ALL in children. We believe the small effects reported for SES in some past studies may be artefactual.