儿童前臂缺血性肌挛缩的研究进展

1881年Volkmann首次详细描述了缺血性肌麻痹与挛缩.1890年Hildebrand把前臂筋膜间室综合征的后期结果命名为Volkmann挛缩.目前人们已经认识Volkmann挛缩是由于各种原因引起组织液压力升高,导致前臂密闭的筋膜腔内肌肉和神经循环障碍而产生一系列症状[1].虽历经百余年的实践研究,但前臂缺血性肌挛缩仍为许多发展中国家儿童创伤的一个严重的、“灾难性”的并发症[2 -3].本文对儿童前臂缺血性肌挛缩相关研究进展进行综述.1 解剖特点与小腿解剖结构相似,前臂的肌筋膜与尺骨、桡骨、尺桡骨间膜一起构成4个筋膜室,分别为背侧筋膜室、掌浅筋膜室、掌深筋膜室、桡侧筋膜室[4].通常筋膜室解剖位置越深,越容易缺血受压[5]. 掌深筋膜室包括屈拇长、屈指长肌腱、旋前圆肌和旋前方肌等,由于尺桡骨之间的骨间膜坚韧而缺乏弹性,掌深间室的容积侧向扩张最易受阻,故出现骨筋膜室综合征时常首先累及该筋膜室;掌浅筋膜室包括屈指浅、尺桡侧腕屈肌等,该筋膜室位置处于掌深筋膜室的浅面,受累率次于掌深筋膜室;背侧筋膜室包括腕、指伸肌;桡侧筋膜室[6]包括肱桡肌、桡侧腕伸肌等[7].正中神经深支穿行于掌深筋膜室其主干在前臂的中1/3段行掌浅、深筋膜室之间,最易受累;骨间前神经支配指深、拇长屈肌,行于掌深筋膜室底面,故缺血性肌挛缩时,该神经也易受累并加重相应的肌肉损伤;尺神经在前臂中段被尺侧腕屈、指浅届、指深屈肌间所包绕,位置表浅,受累率次于正中神经;桡神经深支和骨间后神经分别位于桡侧筋膜室和背侧筋膜室的底面,位置表浅,受累率较低,多见于严重型的病例.     

前臂背侧血管分布特点与皮瓣设计

目的：通过成人前臂背侧血管的解剖学观测，为临床选用皮瓣提供依据。方法：用５０例上肢标本，对前臂背侧血管的分支分布和吻合进行详细的解剖学观察和分析。结果：骨间后动脉和骨间前动脉腕背支是前臂背侧的营养血管，动脉间以及与尺、桡动脉腕背支相吻合。结论：本研究为下述血管为蒂的三种逆行皮瓣，提供了可靠的解剖学依据：（１）以桡动脉腕背支为蒂前臂背侧中下段皮瓣；（２）以骨间前动脉腕背支的尺侧骨皮支为蒂前臂背侧中下段尺侧皮瓣；（３）以骨间前动脉腕背支的桡侧骨皮支为蒂前臂背侧中下段桡侧皮瓣。上述皮瓣可携带骨膜、骨质，用于手部创伤的修复。     

正中神经掌皮支的应用解剖

目的　为腕掌部手术避免损伤掌皮支提供解剖学基础。方法　对 5 0侧成人上肢标本的掌皮支来源、走行、分支、分布及其营养动脉等进行解剖学观测。结果　掌皮支在腕远横纹的“0”点近端(4 4 .9± 2 1.6)mm处发自正中神经桡侧 ,在该点近端 (18.6± 11.5 )mm处穿出前臂深筋膜后 ,紧贴深筋膜和屈肌支持韧带浅面 ,越豆、舟顶间线的中、外 1/3交点至手掌。在“0”点远端 (8.2± 3 .4)mm处穿出掌腱膜。掌皮支干长 (4 9.7± 2 5 .2 )mm ,起点处宽 (1.2± 0 .9)mm。掌皮支主要分支有 3支者占 5 2 %(2 6侧 ) ,2支者 3 4% (17侧 ) ,1支者 14 % (7侧 ) ,它主要分布于手掌的大鱼际区和掌中区。桡、尺动脉发出营养支 (84.69% )与掌皮支干伴行后进入神经 ,掌浅弓发出营养支 (89.62 % )直接进入掌皮支的手掌部分支。结论　腕掌部手术应靠近尺侧作纵切口以免损伤掌皮支     

三角纤维软骨复合体的解剖学研究及腕尺侧痛的病因学分析

目的 观察腕关节三角纤维软骨复合体(triangular fibocartilage complex,TFCC)的神经来源、内部神经分布,为腕尺侧痛提供病因基础,进而为其临床治疗提供解剖学依据.方法 对30例成年男性腕关节标本进行解剖,首先观察腕尺侧组织及TFCC的神经支配,之后观察三角纤维软骨(triangular fibrocartilage,TFC)周围韧带的组成及起止.最后选取10例标本,利用大鼠抗人单克隆PGP9.5抗体和Cy3标记的山羊抗大鼠IgG,通过免疫荧光染色技术,对TFCC内部神经分布行定量观察.结果 TFCC的韧带组成除包括国内外报告的尺月韧带、尺三角韧带(均抵止于对应腕骨掌侧)、桡尺远侧韧带、尺侧副韧带、尺侧腕伸肌腱鞘之外,还包括尺月、尺三角背侧韧带.腕尺侧及TFCC的神经支配主要来自于尺神经手背支的腕关节支和前臂内侧皮神经,而且主要分布于尺侧,尤其是固有部(internal portion,IP).结论 TFCC的尺月、尺三角韧带不仅止于对应腕骨的掌侧,同时也发出纤维抵止于对应腕骨的背侧.腕尺侧及TFCC的神经支配主要来自于尺神经手背支的腕关节支和前臂内侧皮神经,不受单一神经支配,其内部神经主要分布在尺侧,尤其是IP,顽固性尺侧腕痛可以行去神经支配术.     

骨间前动脉腕背支尺骨膜瓣修复三角纤维软骨的解剖学基础

目的为三角纤维软骨修复提供新的手术方法.方法在40侧经动脉灌注红色乳胶的成人尸体标本上,解剖观测骨间前动脉腕背支的走行、分支及分布.结果骨间前动脉腕背支在伸肌腱深面贴骨间膜背侧下行至尺骨茎突上(1.6±0.8)cm处分为内、外侧终支,并分别与尺动脉腕背支、桡动脉腕背支吻合.腕背支近端较恒定地发出尺、桡侧骨皮支,其中尺侧骨皮支经伸肌间隙沿尺骨小头走行,沿途分出皮支和尺骨骨膜支.尺侧骨皮支长(1.4±0.7)cm,外径( 0.9±0.2)mm,可提供3.1cm×3.2cm×0.3cm尺骨远段背侧骨膜瓣.结论可以尺动脉腕背支为蒂设计尺骨远端骨膜瓣转位修复三角纤维软骨的新术式.     

正中神经掌皮支的局部解剖与临床意义

目的 为避免腕、掌部手术切口损伤正中神经掌皮支提供解剖学资料.方法 对52例成人上肢标本正中神经掌皮支的来源、走行、分支、分布、血管显微解剖等进行解剖测量.结果 52例标本均有掌皮支,50例自正中神经桡侧发出,2例自尺侧发出,走行在掌长肌腱和桡侧腕屈肌腱之间的深层.发出点距离0点(远侧腕横纹中点)为(45.2±21.2)mm,穿出前臂深筋膜处距离0点(19.8±12.3)mm,穿出掌腱膜处距离0点(8.2±4.3)mm,掌皮支主干长(49.2±24.2)mm,起点处宽(1.2±0.7)mm,掌皮支与舟骨结节中点的垂直距离为(8.3±2.8) mm.掌皮支分3支者31例(占59.6％),分2支者15例(占28.9％),1支者6例(占11.5％).掌皮支主要分布于鱼际区和掌中区,以直入式、伴入式和肌支式进入神经.结论 掌皮支的来源、行程均较恒定.为避免伤及正中神经掌皮支及其营养血管,在腕部手术切口应选在尺侧半(环指纵轴的尺侧),在掌部应靠近第四掌骨作纵切口.     

骨间后神经终末支显微外科的解剖学研究及其临床意义

目的：对骨间后神经终末支进行解剖学研究为临床提供理论依据。方法：在放大10－16倍的视野下，观测36侧成人上肢标本中骨间后神经终末支在前臂后区、腕后区的行径、分支、分布及其毗邻关系。结果：骨间后神经终末支在前臂支配伸腕、伸指等肌肉和尺、桡骨背侧骨膜。在腕部支配指伸肌腱腱周组织、腕骨关节囊、腕背韧带及滑膜组织、骨间背侧肌肌膜和第三第四掌骨背侧的骨膜；并与尺神经深支有交通支。结论：骨间后神经终末支是支配腕后区和手背深层组织的重要感觉神经，损伤后可引起腕背痛。     

骨间前动脉腕背支尺骨膜瓣修复三角纤维软骨的解剖学基础

目的:为三角纤维软骨修复提供新的手术方法。方法:在40侧经动脉灌注红色乳胶的成人尸体标本上,解剖观测骨间前动脉腕背支的走行、分支及分布。结果:骨间前动脉腕背支在伸肌腱深面贴骨间膜背侧下行至尺骨茎突上(1.6±0.8)cm处分为内、外侧终支,并分别与尺动脉腕背支、桡动脉腕背支吻合。腕背支近端较恒定地发出尺、桡侧骨皮支,其中尺侧骨皮支经伸肌间隙沿尺骨小头走行,沿途分出皮支和尺骨骨膜支。尺侧骨皮支长(1.4±0.7)cm,外径(0.9±0.2)mm,可提供3.1cm×3.2cm×0.3cm尺骨远段背侧骨膜瓣。结论:可以尺动脉腕背支为蒂设计尺骨远端骨膜瓣转位修复三角纤维软骨的新术式。     

前臂背侧嵌合骨皮瓣的应用解剖学研究

目的为前臂背侧嵌合骨皮瓣的设计提供解剖学基础。方法在22例成人上肢标本上解剖,观测骨间后动脉皮支分布,支配尺侧腕伸肌神经支与血管交叉点血管的外径及骨间后动脉与前动脉吻合情况。同时观测尺骨茎突近端5cm范围内,尺骨背侧骨膜血管支数目及血运来源。结果骨间后动脉沿途发出6-10个皮支,在深筋膜浅层形成丰富血管网吻合。可分为两种类型,Ⅰ型：间隔1-2cm发出皮支（15例）;Ⅱ型：分远、近两组（7例）。支配尺侧腕伸肌神经支与血管交叉点动脉外径（1．4±0．2）mm。在尺骨茎突近侧（2．4±0．5）cm处骨间后动脉与前动脉腕背支形成恒定吻合。尺骨茎突近侧5cm范围内,骨间后动脉向尺骨远段发出（3．0±0．8）支骨膜支（19例）;骨间后动脉发出2支骨膜支,骨间前动脉背侧支发出1支骨膜支（2例）;骨间前动脉背侧支发出2支骨膜支（1例）。结论以骨间后动脉为蒂可切取前臂背侧皮瓣、尺骨远端骨瓣形成嵌合组织瓣,修复手部皮肤缺损合并小块骨组织缺损。     

骨间掌动脉背侧支岛状皮瓣的临床应用

我们应用骨间掌动脉背侧支岛状皮瓣修复手部皮肤缺损 6例 ,效果满意 ,报告如下。1　应用解剖骨间掌动脉在旋前方肌上缘分为两支 ,一支为主干延续支 ,在旋前方肌深面走向远端 ,终于腕掌侧动脉网 ,另一支穿过骨间膜成为背侧支 ,于拇短伸肌、指总伸肌间隙向远端走行 ;在拇短伸肌肌腹肌腱移行处发出皮支 ,其长约 3.0 cm,动脉直径约 1mm,行至筋膜内分出上行支、下行支。上行支走向前臂近端桡侧与骨间背动脉桡侧支之降支形成吻合。背侧支主干向远端走行时分为两支 ,加入腕背动脉网。静脉回流以伴行静脉呈迷宫式途径回流。若头静脉也包括在皮瓣内 ,…     

Innervation of the wrist joint and surgical perspectives of denervation

PURPOSE: Because our experience with the techniques used in denervation surgery of the wrist joint often has proven insufficient in treating chronic pain we conducted an anatomic study to clarify the exact contributions of the nerves supplying the wrist joint. Our goal was to reveal all periosteal and capsular nerve connections and if necessary adjust our technique used in denervation surgery. METHODS: Innervation of the wrist joint was investigated by microdissection and histologic examination of 18 human wrists. An acetylcholinesterase method was used to identify the nerves, both in whole-mount preparations and in sections. RESULTS: We found that the main innervation to the wrist capsule and periosteal nerve network came from the anterior interosseous nerve, lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve, and posterior interosseous nerve. The palmar cutaneous branch of the median nerve, the deep branch of the ulnar nerve, the superficial branch of the radial nerve, and the dorsal branch of the ulnar nerve also were found to have connections with the capsule. The periosteal nerve branches did not appear to play a major role in the innervation of the capsule and ligaments; here the specific articular nerve branches proved more important. The posterior and medial antebrachial cutaneous nerves did not connect to the wrist capsule or periosteum but rather terminated in the extensor and flexor retinaculum. CONCLUSIONS: Based on our findings we propose to denervate the wrist by making 2 incisions. With one palmar and one dorsal incision it should be possible to disconnect the periosteum from the capsule and interrupt the majority of the capsular nerve branches.     

The nerve supply of the trapeziometacarpal joint

Ten forearm and hand specimens from fresh cadavers were dissected and examined under magnification for articular branches to the trapeziometacarpal joint arising from the thenar and palmar cutaneous branches of the median nerve, the superficial branch of the radial nerve and the lateral cutaneous nerve of forearm. In all but one specimen the thenar branch of the median nerve sent an articular branch to the trapeziometacarpal joint. Multiple branches from the palmar cutaneous branch of the median nerve, the superficial branch of the radial nerve and the lateral cutaneous nerve of forearm were also found. All these branches need to be divided during a "complete" denervation of the trapeziometacarpal joint.     

Wrist denervation and the anterior interosseous nerve: anatomic considerations

PURPOSE: Wrist denervation via resection of the distal anterior interosseous nerve (AIN) and the posterior interosseous nerve (PIN) is an effective treatment for chronic wrist pain. When performing this procedure through a dorsal approach we have been impressed by anatomic variations of the AIN. This has raised concerns about potential denervation of the pronator quadratus (PQ). The purpose of this study was to elucidate the anatomy of the AIN and PIN as encountered through a dorsal distal forearm incision. METHODS: Ten fresh-frozen cadavers were dissected. Before dissection radiographs were obtained to ensure accurate localization of the proximal ulnar head with a radiopaque marker. A dorsal approach to the distal forearm was made to identify the anatomy of the PIN and AIN. The location and diameter of all AIN branches were noted by using an operating stereoscopic microscope at x 25 magnification and a precision caliper. The PIN anatomy and size also were noted. RESULTS: The anatomy of the AIN was variable. The average AIN diameter proximal to the PQ was 1.5 mm. The average number of AIN motor branches was 4.2. The largest PQ motor branch was the first motor branch and was located at an average distance of 37.9 mm from the proximal ulnar head. The last motor branch was found an average of 23.9 mm from the proximal ulnar head. In 9 of 10 specimens the sensory branch tunneled radially through the distal PQ and innervated the periosteum of the volar distal radius. In 4 of 10 specimens a separate branch to the distal radioulnar joint was present. We found an average PIN diameter of 0.87 mm. CONCLUSIONS: Resection of the AIN at a point 4 cm proximal to the proximal point of the ulnar head would denervate completely the PQ in our cadaver population. Division of the AIN 2 cm proximal to the ulnar head would spare most of the PQ motor branches.     

Surgical exposures of the radius and ulna

The forearm contains many muscles, nerves, and vascular structures that change position on forearm rotation. Exposure of the radial shaft is best achieved with the Henry (volar) or Thompson (dorsal) approach. The volar flexor carpi radialis approaches are used increasingly for exposure of the distal radius. Although the dorsal approach is a safe utilitarian option with many applications, its use for managing fracture of the distal radius has waned. Potential complications associated with radial exposure include injury to the superficial branch of the radial nerve, the lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve, and the cephalic vein. Dorsal and ulnar proximal radial exposures are associated with increased risk of injury to the posterior interosseous nerve. With surgical exposure of the ulna, care is required to avoid injuring the dorsal cutaneous branch of the ulnar nerve.     

First carpometacarpal joint denervation: anatomy and surgical technique

The main goal of first carpometacarpal arthritis surgery is to relieve pain. The main disadvantage of the classic techniques (trapeziectomy, implant arthroplasty) is that they are extensive surgeries with potential complications, such as radial nerve paresthesia and synovitis. In the author's opinion, denervation of the first carpometacarpal joint is a viable option in selected cases. He describes the technique of denervation based on his previous anatomic investigations. Two incisions are needed to sever all the articular branches derived from the superficial branch of the radial nerve, the palmar cutaneous branch of the median nerve, the thenar branch of the median nerve, and the lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve. Results comparable with trapeziectomy or first carpometacarpal joint fusion are obtained concerning pain. Complications are uncommon, except for temporary paresthesia of the radial nerve sensory branch.     

游离尺动脉腕上皮支皮瓣修复手指创面

目的探讨尺动脉腕上皮支皮瓣修复手指创面的手术方法及效果。方法对11例手指皮肤软组织缺损合并肌腱或骨外露者,采用游离尺动脉腕上皮支皮瓣进行修复。其中8例面积为2．5cm×1．0cm-5．2cm×2．2cm的皮瓣．在腕上皮支下行支轴线上切取：3例面积为5．5cm×3．0cm×6．2cm×3．8cm的皮瓣,在腕上皮支下行支及上行支轴线上切取。皮瓣切取后,8例下行支皮瓣内腕上皮支主干均直接与受区指动脉吻合,3例合并有上行支的皮瓣均移植了前臂静脉与受区的指动脉吻合,皮瓣内的皮下静脉或伴行静脉分别与近端指掌侧或指背侧2-3根静脉吻合,将皮瓣内携带的1条尺神经手背支与指固有神经接合。结果术后11例皮瓣全部成活．并获得4～17个月随访。皮肤弹性、色泽、质地良好,外形满意。两点辨别觉9-12mm。结论游离尺动脉腕上皮支皮瓣供区隐蔽,血管穿支位置恒定,不损伤主干血管,供区损伤小,切取简单。修复手指缺损外观满意,可携带神经恢复皮瓣感觉,是修复手指创面的一种理想选择。     

Susceptibility of the superficial sensory branch of the radial nerve to form painful neuromas

The superficial sensory branch of the radial nerve appears prone to develop painful neuromas out of proportion to its likelihood for injury. Based on cadaver dissections and intraoperative observations, an anatomical mechanism for this "predisposition" is suggested. Exit of this nerve beneath dense fascia and the tendons of brachioradialis and extensor carpi radialis longus provide a proximal tethering against which tension develops as the distal fixation point (neuroma) is pulled through the long excursion of wrist arc of motion. This long excursion and proximal tethering are not present anatomically for the dorsal cutaneous branch of the ulnar nerve nor the palmar cutaneous branch of the median nerve.     

The cutaneous innervation of the dorsal hand: detailed anatomy with clinical implications

PURPOSE: Detailed knowledge of the anatomy of the cutaneous innervation to the dorsal surface of the hand is valuable information. Because surgical access to the wrist often is obtained via the dorsal skin it would be helpful particularly to delineate an area where surgical incisions would not injure underlying nerves. METHODS: Thirty cadaver forearms were dissected carefully to examine in detail the anatomy of the lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve, the superficial branch of the radial nerve, and the dorsal branch of the ulnar nerve. Each hand then was evaluated for an area free of any major nerve branches over the dorsal wrist. RESULTS: Although the innervation to the dorsal hand varies certain patterns exist. The innervation pattern between the superficial branch of the radial nerve and the dorsal branch of the ulnar nerve is distributed evenly, dual innervation is frequent between the 2 nerves, and the lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve is a common contributor to the innervation of the thumb. The superficial branch of the radial nerve and the dorsal branch of the ulnar nerve have identifiable branching patterns and have been classified according to a system developed for this study. CONCLUSIONS: Two classification systems based on detailed dorsal hand cutaneous innervation patterns can be used to specify the placement of a safe dorsal skin incision away from major nerve branches.     

游离足底内侧皮瓣修复腕掌尺侧皮肤神经缺损

目的 探讨修复腕掌尺侧皮肤神经同时缺损的新方法.方法 2000年4月至2009年8月,应用游离足底内侧皮瓣修复腕掌尺侧皮肤并神经缺损5例.足拇趾胫侧趾底固有神经修复小指尺掌侧固有神经缺损1例;桡神经浅支修复尺神经及其深浅支缺损2例,修复尺神经浅支、第4指掌侧总神经及小指尺掌侧固有神经缺损1例;尺神经手背支修复尺神经浅支、第4指掌侧总神经及小指尺掌侧固有神经缺损1例.足底内侧血管与尺血管吻合.供区取同侧大腿皮片移植修复.结果 术后皮瓣及移植皮片全部成活.5例获得6个月至4年的随访,皮瓣质地好、外观满意,无手内肌萎缩和爪形手畸形,皮瓣和手指感觉恢复达S3～S3+,皮瓣两点辨距觉为7～10 mm.尺神经深浅支缺损病例术后综合评价均为优.结论 游离足底内侧皮瓣是修复腕掌尺侧皮肤神经缺损的有效方法.     

游离足底内侧皮瓣修复腕掌尺侧皮肤神经缺损

目的 探讨修复腕掌尺侧皮肤神经同时缺损的新方法.方法 2000年4月至2009年8月,应用游离足底内侧皮瓣修复腕掌尺侧皮肤并神经缺损5例.足拇趾胫侧趾底固有神经修复小指尺掌侧固有神经缺损1例;桡神经浅支修复尺神经及其深浅支缺损2例,修复尺神经浅支、第4指掌侧总神经及小指尺掌侧固有神经缺损1例;尺神经手背支修复尺神经浅支、第4指掌侧总神经及小指尺掌侧固有神经缺损1例.足底内侧血管与尺血管吻合.供区取同侧大腿皮片移植修复.结果 术后皮瓣及移植皮片全部成活.5例获得6个月至4年的随访,皮瓣质地好、外观满意,无手内肌萎缩和爪形手畸形,皮瓣和手指感觉恢复达S3～S3+,皮瓣两点辨距觉为7～10 mm.尺神经深浅支缺损病例术后综合评价均为优.结论 游离足底内侧皮瓣是修复腕掌尺侧皮肤神经缺损的有效方法.