New options in breast reconstructive surgery: Alternatives to the latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap

Transposition of the latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap is still considered by most authors a first-choice technique for breast reconstruction. However, the aesthetic drawbacks of the technique are significant: In our experience the posterior scar and the patchlike skin island are of concern to more than 30% of patients. Recent alternatives have sharply reduced the use of the latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flap as our first-choice technique. The utilization of a latissimus dorsi muscular flap in association with submuscular placement of a tissue expander is now our favorite technique for the majority of patients: Residual scarring is insignificant since the whole muscle can be raised through a 5–7-cm-long, S-shaped incision placed along the anterior border of the latissimus dorsi. The results obtained in a group of 35 patients demonstrate that the final results of the procedure in terms of shape and projection of the reconstructed breasts are absolutely similar to those obtained using the latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap. However, in patients with heavy body structure and large contralateral breast, satisfactory symmetry and a natural-looking reconstructed breast are obtained more effectively by transposition of a rectus abdominis myocutaneous flap. The precautions to be taken in order to make the procedure suitable for overweight patients are described and the results are discussed.     

Physiological studies using laser Doppler flowmetry to compare blood flow to the zones of the free TRAM flap

The latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous island flap was once the standard for breast reconstruction. With the increased use of tissue expanders and the development of the transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous flap for autologous tissue breast reconstruction, use of the latissimus dorsi has decreased. To reassess the role of the latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap in breast reconstruction, a retrospective review was performed to evaluate women who had skin-sparing mastectomy followed by immediate reconstruction with a latissimus dorsi flap and permanent implants. The postoperative aesthetic results and donor site morbidity, including contour deformity and scarring, were examined. Satisfactory results were obtained in 17 of 18 patients. Complications were noted in 5 patients, and all were minor. Using the latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap and a permanent breast prosthesis for immediate reconstruction is successful because it provides sufficient muscular coverage of the implant. In addition, it provides a good aesthetic result using a single-stage procedure. Illustrative cases are presented.     

应用背阔肌岛状肌皮瓣修复烧伤后乳房畸形

目的 介绍应用背阔肌岛状肌皮瓣修复前胸壁烧伤后所致乳房瘢痕挛缩畸形的临床效果.方法 应用扩张或未扩张的背阔肌岛状肌皮瓣修复烧伤后乳房瘢痕、部分缺损畸形,其中轻、中度烧伤后乳房缺失2例,采用背阔肌岛状肌皮瓣修复重度乳房缺失5例,采用扩张的背阔肌岛状肌皮瓣修复.结果 共治疗7例,术后肌皮瓣完全成活,乳房形态明显改善,无肌皮瓣坏死、背部伤口感染、裂开及肩部功能障碍等并发症发生.供区无明显后遗畸形及功能障碍.结论 背阔肌岛状肌皮瓣血运良好,操作简便易行,是修复烧伤乳房畸形的较好方法.     

乳房重建中应用背阔肌肌皮瓣适应证及技术原则

无论是延迟乳房重建还是即刻乳房重建,均可以应用背阔肌肌皮瓣来进行。它既可以单独使用,也可结合假体同时应用于乳房重建。对于乳房切除、腋窝淋巴结清扫术后局部缺损较大的病人,背阔肌肌皮瓣结合乳房假体的乳房重建手术是一种非常好的选择。对于因为腹部手术、腹部疾病等问题,不能采用腹直肌肌皮瓣进行乳房重建的病人,首选背阔肌肌皮瓣重建乳房。但如果不能排除胸背动脉、肩胛下动脉以及背阔肌损伤可能则应该避免采用背阔肌肌皮瓣乳房重建。术前应对背阔肌肌皮瓣进行全面评估及仔细设计,术中谨慎操作,注意避免发生术中及术后并发症。     

Transaxillary latissimus dorsi flap reconstruction in head and neck cancer. Limitations and refinements in 56 cases

The transaxillary latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap is suitable whenever a large volume of tissue is required for head and neck reconstruction. Fifty-six transaxillary latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap reconstructions were performed in 55 patients. There were two cases of complete flap necrosis and eight cases of partial flap necrosis. The latissimus dorsi vascular pedicle is separate from the irradiated field. The pedicled latissimus dorsi flap provides coverage of the orbitocranium, including the supraorbital region and central portion of the upper face. In the event that the pedicled latissimus dorsi flap does not reach far enough cephalad, the nutrient vessels may be separated from the axillary artery and anastomosed to vessels in the neck. Combined defects of the esophagus, mandibulofacial region, and neck may be reconstructed with a single large latissimus dorsi flap. Hairless skin particularly suitable for oral cavity reconstruction is usually available. Aesthetic and functional deficits are minimal after latissimus dorsi reconstruction. Disadvantages of this technique include repositioning of the patient, increased blood loss, and longer operating time. Permanent brachial plexus injury may occur. The latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap should not be used when defects can be reconstructed by simpler methods.     

Delayed Breast Reconstruction with Latissimus Dorsi Flap

Background  The ideal method of breast reconstruction should be safe, reliable, and have minimal or no donor-site morbidity. We present our experience with the latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap for delayed breast reconstruction with immediate permanent implant insertion. Methods  The latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap was performed on patients who presented for delayed breast reconstruction. From 1999 to 2007, charts of patients were reviewed for age, type of mastectomy, history of chest wall irradiation, nipple-areola complex reconstruction, and complications at both the donor site and the reconstructed breast site. Results  The latissimus dorsi was used as a musculocutaneous flap in 33 patients who had breast cancer surgery. The mean age was 51.14 (range = 30–63) years. Nine patients (27%) asked for nipple-areola reconstruction. Three patients had major complications (9%), including infection, partial flap ischemia, and liponecrotic pseudocysts. Eight patients required revision. Seroma was the most common problem observed at the donor site. Conclusion  The latissimus dorsi flap provides adequate soft tissue with a reliable blood supply for the enhancement of missing tissue after mastectomy. It is a safe method for breast reconstruction and an excellent alternative flap for patients at high risk for abdominal flap complications.     

Clinical studies on reconstruction procedure of total layer chest wall resection

The results of clinical studies on 16 reconstruction procedure after total layer chest wall resection in 14 cases of malignant tumor of the chest wall were reported. The 14 cases consisted of two cases with recurrent primary chest wall tumor, two cases of primary breast cancer, seven cases of recurrent breast cancer, and others. The reconstruction procedure after total layer chest wall resection was conducted using only various myocutaneous flaps (eight cases using latissimus dorsi of the resected side, three cases using the abdominitis of the resected side, three cases using latissimus dorsi of the non-resected side, and two cases using a pectoralis major myocutaneous flap of the non-resected side). reconstruction only using a myocutaneous flap proved to be satisfactory for preventing early stage postoperative respiratory distress and maintaining the stability of the chest wall and respiratory function during prolonged observation. Namely, use of myocutaneous flap is the best approach of reconstruction the chest wall after total layer chest wall resection. We confirmed that reconstruction with latissimus dorsi myocutaneous free flap of the non-resected side with microvascular anastomosis of thoracodorsal vessels was useful for posterior chest wall tumors invading the latissimus dorsi muscle. Also, our results demonstrated the insertion of an omental flap under the myocutaneous flap was useful for cases with secondary chest wall infection or vascular damage caused by preoperative high dose irradiation.     

Reconstruction of breast after super-radical mastectomy with a pedicled latissimus dorsi flap and a free TRAM flap

Reconstruction of the breast after super-radical mastectomy is difficult because not only a breast mound but also the subclavicular and anterior axillary regions must be reconstructed simultaneously. If a defect is extremely large a single flap cannot fulfil these two purposes. For this goal we use two flaps, an ipsilateral pedicled latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap and a free TRAM flap pedicled on the inferior epigastric vessels. A latissimus dorsi flap along with a silicone gel prosthesis is used to reconstruct a breast mound and the free TRAM flap is transferred to augment the subclavicular and anterior axillary regions. We have used this technique successfully in three cases.     

Poland's Syndrome: Improved Surgical Management

Single-stage reconstruction of the chest wall combined with simultaneous augmentation mammoplasty and transfer of an island pedicle myocutaneous flap of latissimus dorsi muscle are major improvements over previous multiple-stage procedures that provide less satisfactory cosmetic results in management of patients with Poland's syndrome. Utilization of the single-stage technique in 2 patients demonstrated its efficacy as proven by excellent cosmetic results. In 1 patient with absent second, third, and fourth costal cartilages and ribs, Marlex mesh covered with a synthetic dura mater graft was employed to stabilize the chest wall. Simultaneously, an island pedicle myocutaneous flap of latissimus dorsi with its neurovascular bundle preserved was transferred to cover the prosthesis. The other patient had a coexistent pectus carinatum defect, which was repaired by resection of the costal cartilages and osteotomy of the sternum without use of Marlex. The breast implant was covered concomitantly with the myocutaneous flap of latissimus dorsi. No morbidity or mortality occurred. The cosmetic and functional results are superior to those obtained with standard techniques.     

Latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap with trilobed skin island for breast reconstruction

Summary The latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap provides generous amounts of skin and muscle for reconstruction of a breast after mastectomy. Correct analysis of the lack of tissue is necessary to enable a good reconstruction with regard to position and shape. Insufficient skin with undue soft tissue tension over a prosthesis is one cause for a less-than-optimal result. A latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap with a trilobed skin island gives the reconstructed breast a natural appearance without undue tension.     

综合近年国内论文探讨我国乳房再造的发展趋势

目的：通过对近九年来国内杂志上发表的相关论文分析，预测未来我国乳房再造的发展趋势。方法：以“乳房再造”为检索词，通过“中国期刊网题录数据库”检索，获取题录。然后查找原文进行分析。结果：论文数量呈现由高到低，再迅速增加的变化。2000-2002年三年间手术例数较前六年成倍增加；在横行腹直肌肌皮瓣(TRAM皮瓣)和背阔肌肌皮瓣这两种主要术式中以后者增加最为明显，且更多地是乳癌切除术中的Ⅰ期乳房再造。结论：利用背阔肌肌皮瓣的Ⅰ期乳房再造将在今后一段时间内成为主流。     

Use of the extended V-Y latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flap for chest wall reconstruction in locally advanced breast cancer

The extended V-Y latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flap described by Micali and Carramaschi provides an innovative method of closing large anterior chest defects after resection of breast cancer. The technique provides robust chest wall coverage that is able to withstand immediate postoperative radiotherapy. The aim of this article is to confirm the usefulness of the flap's design and describe modifications to the technique. The modifications to technique include: a curvilinear design that recruited more skin for closure in patients with wounds extending laterally or superiorly, routine transposition of latissimus dorsi insertion inferio-medially onto the chest wall to maximize pedicle reach, and the use of small split skin grafts or delayed primary closure if there was tension in closing. Twelve patients who underwent resection of locally advanced breast cancer had immediate chest wall reconstruction with the extended V-Y latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap. The V to Y design of the flap's cutaneous island allowed primary closure of chest wound and donor defect. There were no instances of chest wound dehiscence. The chest wounds healed, allowing patients to undergo adjuvant radiotherapy in a mean time interval of 6 weeks after surgery.     

改良背阔肌肌皮瓣乳房再造术

目的 探讨背阔肌肌皮瓣在乳房再造术中的的应用价值,为临床自体乳房再造提供一种有效的手术方式。方法 １９９４年以来,采用以背阔肌肌皮瓣及胸背动脉营养的脂肪组织联合移位,以对侧乳房的形态及体积为参照,进行取材及塑形的自体组织再造乳房。结果 ６０例（６０侧）乳房再造手术人武部成功,经过３个月～５年随访,术后效果满意４１例,占６８．３％,比较满意１６例,占２６．７％,不满意３例,占５．０％。结论 改良背阔     

Latissimus dorsi muscle and its short perforator-based skin compound free flap

Some authors have described the latissimus dorsi muscle and its short perforator-based skin compound flap based on the same thoracodorsal vessels. This flap procedure involves separating the skin island from the underlying latissimus dorsi muscle and rotating the skin island over the musculocutaneous perforator emerging from the latissimus dorsi muscle. As with all surgical procedures, there are various advantages and disadvantages. However, to the best of the authors' knowledge, there are no reports on the use of the flap in a consecutive series.Between 1997 and 2005, the flap was used to reconstruct below-knee structures in 26 patients (23 males and 3 females) by the 2 senior authors at the Chonnam National University Medical School. The clinical outcomes of this procedure were evaluated.Satisfactory results were obtained in most patients. However, there were 2 marginal necroses in the excessively large skin flaps, 1 partial necrosis over the distal edge of a skin flap, and 1 total flap failure caused by infection. The marginally and partially necrotized skin flaps were treated successfully with split-thickness skin grafts. However, another flap procedure was required to cover the defect in the case of flap failure. The donor sites were closed primarily in all patients, and the skin flaps were rotated between 40 degrees and 180 degrees. This flap allows the surface of the latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap to be expanded without additional donor morbidity. In addition, the flap procedure is safe and easy to perform. Moreover, the flap provides sufficient flexibility, even though it has less independent flap mobility than the chimeric flap. Therefore, the flap may be a convenient and reliable alternative for the reconstruction of large and irregular-shaped wounds.     

乳癌术后的乳房再造

目的 探索乳癌根治术后3种不同乳房再造方法的最佳外观效果.方法 (1)乳癌切除Ⅱ期行扩大背阔肌肌皮瓣乳房再造.(2)乳癌切除即时腹直肌横行皮瓣乳房再造.(3)保留胸大肌乳癌切除,Ⅱ期乳房假体置入并行乳头、乳晕再造;对不保留胸大肌乳癌切除者,Ⅱ期皮肤扩张后乳房假体置入再造.结果 共计治疗12例,10例皮瓣全部成活,外观形态满意,优良率较高.2例不满意,其中1例扩张后,因局部皮肤皮下组织较薄,扩张程度不足,勉强置入140 ml乳房假体,外观形态明显偏小;另1例腹直肌肌皮瓣大部分坏死,经再次修复创面愈合,乳房再造失败.结论 乳房再造的方法选择得当,可使乳房形态更为自然.普通背阔肌皮瓣改用扩大的背阔肌皮瓣后,软组织量比前者增加1倍以上,使再造乳房与对侧相近.假体置入乳房成形后,Ⅱ期行单蒂乳头、乳晕再造,可给患者以心理和外观上的更多抚慰.     

保留乳房皮肤的乳腺切除与即刻乳房再造

目的　探讨保留乳房皮肤的乳腺切除与腹直肌肌皮瓣、背阔肌肌皮瓣加乳房假体 ,即刻再造乳房的方法。　方法　 1997年 6月～ 2 0 0 2年 6月 ,对 11例乳腺导管内原位癌和巨大乳腺良性肿瘤患者 ,经顺乳晕切口切取肿瘤活检 ,病理检查明确诊断。采用保留乳房皮肤的乳晕环形切口行乳腺或巨大肿瘤的乳腺皮下切除术 ;应用腹直肌肌皮瓣或背阔肌肌皮瓣加乳房假体即刻再造乳房 ,充填乳房的内容 ,仅以少量的肌皮瓣皮肤弥补切除后的乳头乳晕部位。再次手术时在移位后的皮瓣上再造乳头。　结果　经多科协作完成了 11例手术 ,随访 1个月始至 1～ 6年 ,效果良好 ,无肿瘤复发。其再造乳房与健侧乳房对称 ,保留了原有乳房皮肤的感觉 ,外观形态自然 ,瘢痕较少且隐蔽。　结论　在严格手术适应证防止乳腺癌复发的前提下 ,此法为一较完善的乳房再造方法。     

Entire pharyngoesophageal reconstruction with latissimus dorsi myocutaneous island flap

The entire pharynx and cervical esophagus were reconstructed after total laryngectomy and pharyngoesophagectomy for advanced cancer in 14 patients with the use of a pedicled latissimus dorsi myocutaneous island flap. All flaps were transferred successfully in one stage. The reliability of the flap and postoperative state of food passage were studied. Repair was confirmed by roentgenographic examination 6 months after surgery. A slight narrowness was noted at the portion anastomosed with the esophagus, with dilatation of the reconstructed segment. All patients in our study have been able to resume normal oral feeding. The pedicled latissimus dorsi myocutaneous island flap is reliable and useful for the reconstruction of the pharynx and cervical esophagus.     

乳房皮下切除与自体组织即刻乳房再造

目的探索乳房皮下切除与几种方法的乳房再造术，即腹直肌肌皮瓣或背阔肌肌皮瓣加乳房假体或局部皮瓣等即刻再造乳房的方法。方法选择乳腺导管内原位癌10例和巨大乳腺良性肿瘤5例，顺乳晕切口活检，病理检查确立诊断后，采用经乳腺切口行乳癌或巨大肿瘤的乳房皮下切除术，若乳癌或良性肿瘤体积较大，另于腋窝部加做顺腋下皱襞的附加切口，以便于取出切除的组织及切除乳腺的腋尾部，同时可以切取腋淋巴结行冰冻切片活检。然后，应用腹直肌肌皮瓣或背阔肌肌皮瓣加乳房假体或局部皮瓣即刻行再造乳房，充填乳房切除后的空间，仅以少量的肌皮瓣皮肤修复乳头、乳晕切除后的缺损，并在此转移皮瓣上再造乳头、乳晕。结果经过多专科协作共完成15例，随访结果良好，无肿瘤复发。此法再造的乳房易与健侧乳房对称，保留了原有乳房皮肤的良好感觉，外观形态自然，再造乳房瘢痕较少，且手术切口瘢痕隐蔽。结论在严格选择手术适应证防止乳腺癌复发的前提下，乳房皮下切除与即刻乳房再造法，对乳腺导管内原位癌和巨大乳腺良性肿瘤患者I期完成肿瘤切除和乳房再造术，具有积极有效的意义。     

扩大背阔肌肌皮瓣乳房再造

目的 介绍单纯应用扩大背阔肌肌皮瓣进行乳房再造方法.方法 将背阔肌周围脂肪组织分为5个区,切取背阔肌及周围脂肪组织,不应用乳房假体,进行即时或后期乳房再造.结果 应用该方法再造乳房95例,其中保留乳头乳晕改良根治术后即时再造24例,保留皮肤改良根治术后即时再造36例,改良根治术后即时再造26例,后期再造9例,其中1例为改良根治术后,其他8例为改良根治术后,再造乳房均形态良好.术后6例乳头部分坏死;14例胸部皮肤表皮脱落,自行愈合;2例背部供区部分坏死;背部顽固性血清肿2例,再次手术后愈合.结论 扩大背阔肌肌皮瓣乳房再造安全有效,再造乳房形态良好,尤其适用于中、小乳房的乳房再造.