Endoscopic nasobiliary drainage for treating bile leak after laparoscopic cholecystectomy.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Bile leaks are common complications of laparoscopic cholecystectomy. We evaluated the diagnosis and endoscopic treatment of bile leaks. METHODOLOGY: A total of 436 patients underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy with infrahepatic drainage. We performed immediate endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) on all patients with bile discharge from an infrahepatic drain, and treated bile leaks which were not due to a major ductal injury by endoscopic nasobiliary drainage (ENBD) without endoscopic sphincterotomy (ES). RESULTS: Ten patients developed bile leaks which were recognized within 18 hours of operation. ERCP, on post-operative day 1 or 2, showed a bile leak from the cystic duct (9 patients) or the liver bed (1 patient). All patients underwent ENBD. Only 1 patient, who had a retained stone, had ES. In all patients, the bile leak resolved promptly and both the infrahepatic and nasobiliary drains were removed within 6 days of cholecystectomy. All patients were asymptomatic at a mean follow-up of 30 months. CONCLUSIONS: Routine placement of an infrahepatic drain is recommended for the early detection of bile leaks. Bile leaks can be successfully treated by prompt ENBD without ES.     

Endoscopy for bile duct stones

In the era of laparoscopic cholecystectomy and advanced non-invasive imaging studies, pre-operative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) for bile duct stones should be reserved for selected patients. ERCP remains the therapy of choice for removal of bile duct stones in the post-cholecystectomy patient and in patients with intact gallbladders. Bile duct stones can be cleared in nearly all patients using endoscopic techniques of sphincterotomy and mechanical lithotripsy. Difficult or complex bile duct stones can be endoscopically removed in the majority of patients with additional techniques such as extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, intraductal lithotripsy and/or stent placement. In non-operative patients in whom stone clearance cannot be achieved, long-term stent placement is a potential option in patients who are not candidates for further therapy. Endoscopic therapy may be effective in selected patients with intrahepatic biliary stones.     

ERCP and endoscopic sphincterotomy in infants and children with jaundice due to common bile duct stones.

ERCP was performed in two infants (29 and 62 days old) and eight children (5 to 12 years old) with jaundice due to common bile duct stones. Seven patients had hemolytic anemia and three patients had a family history of gallstone disease. Successful cannulation of the common bile duct demonstrating stones was accomplished in all patients. Four patients had coexisting gallstones and were treated surgically. Six children who had previously undergone cholecystectomy were treated by endoscopic sphincterotomy and stone extraction without complication. We believe that ERCP should be utilized by expert endoscopists in children with evidence of extra-hepatic cholestasis, and endoscopic sphincterotomy should be the treatment of choice in children who have previously undergone cholecystectomy, and who are jaundiced secondary to common bile duct stones.     

Endoscopic management of postoperative bile leaks

BACKGROUND: Significant bile leak as an uncommon complication after biliary tract surgery may constitute a serious and difficult management problem. Surgical management of biliary fistulae is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Biliary endoscopic procedures have become the treatment of choice for management of biliary Gstulae. METHODS: Ninety patients presented with bile leaks after cholecystectomy ( open cholecystectomy in 45 patients, cholecystectomy with common bile duct exploration in 20 and laparoscopic cholecystectomy in 25). The presence of bile leaks was confirmed by ERCP and the appearance of bile in percutaneous drainage of abdominal collections. Of the 90 patients with postoperative bile leaks, 18 patients had complete transaction of the common bile duct by ERCP and were subjected to bilioenteric anastomosis. In the remaining patients after cholangiography and localization of the site of bile leaks. therapeutic procedures like sphinctero-tomy, biliary stenting and nasobiliary drainage ( NBD ) were performed. If residual stones were seen in the common bile duct, sphincterotomy was followed by stone extraction using dormia basket. Nasobiliary drain or stents of 7F size were placed according to the standard techniques. The NBD was removed when bile leak stopped and closure of the fistula confirmed cholangiographically. The stents were removed after an interval of 6-8 weeks. RESULTS: Bile leaks in 72 patients occurred in the cystic duct (38 patients), the common bile duct (30 ), and the right hepatic duct (4). Of the 72 patients with post-operative bile leak, 24 had associated retained common bile duct stones and 1 had ascaris in common bile duct. All the 72 patients were subjected to therapeutic procedures including sphincterotomy with stone extraction followed by biliary stenting (24 patients), removal of ascaris and biliary stenting (1), sphincterotomy with biliary stenting (18), sphincterotomy with NBD (12), biliary stenting alone (12), and NBD alone (5). Bile leaks stopped in all patients at a median interval of 3 days (range 3-16 days) after endoscopic in- terventions. No difference was observed in efficacy and in time for the treatment of bile leak by sphincterotomy with endoprosthesis or endoprosthesis alone in patients with bile leak after surgery. CONCLUSIONS: Post-cholecystectomy bile leaks occur most commonly in the cystic duct and associated common bile duct stones are found in one-third of cases. Endoscopic therapy is safe and effective in the management of bile leaks and fistulae after surgery. Sphincterotomy with endoprosthesis or endoprosthesis alone is equally effective in the management of postoperative bile leak.     

Difficult bile duct stones

Opinion statement Bile duct stones are routinely removed at time of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) after biliary sphincterotomy with standard balloon or basket extraction techniques. However, in approximately 10% to 15% of patients, bile duct stones may be difficult to remove due to challenging access to the bile duct (periampullary diverticulum, Billroth II anatomy, Roux-en-Y gastrojejunostomy), large (> 15 mm in diameter) bile duct stones, intrahepatic stones, or impacted stones in the bile duct or cystic duct. The initial approach to the removal of the difficult bile duct stone is to ensure adequate biliary sphincter orifice diameter with extension of biliary sphincterotomy or balloon dilation of the orifice. Mechanical lithotripsy is a readily available adjunct to standard stone extraction techniques and should be available in all ERCP units. If stone extraction fails with these maneuvers, two or more bile duct stents should be inserted, and ursodiol added to aid in duct decompression, stone fragmentation, and stone dissolution. Follow-up ERCP attempts to remove the difficult bile duct stones may be performed locally if expertise is available or alternatively referred to a tertiary center for advanced extracorporeal or intracorporeal fragmentation (mother-baby laser or electrohydraulic lithotripsy) techniques. Nearly all patients with bile duct stones can be treated endoscopically if advanced techniques are utilized. For the rare patient who fails despite these efforts, surgical bile duct exploration, percutaneous approach to the bile duct, or long-term bile duct stenting should be discussed with the patient and family to identify the most appropriate therapeutic option. A thoughtful approach to each patient with difficult bile duct stones and a healthy awareness of the operator/endoscopy unit limitations is necessary to ensure the best patient outcomes. Consultation with a dedicated tertiary ERCP specialty center may be necessary.     

Single-step treatment of gallbladder and bile duct stones: a combined endoscopic-laparoscopic technique

BACKGROUND: The introduction of laparoscopic cholecystectomy has given rise to a debate as to whether endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) should be performed before or after cholecystectomy in patients with bile duct stones. METHODS: This study evaluated the efficacy of treatment of cholecystocholedocholithiasis in a single step by performing ERCP during surgery in 52 patients (35 women, 17 men; mean age 57.0 years; age range 20 to 89 years). Laparoscopic intraoperative cholangiography via the cystic duct was carried out to confirm the presence of duct stones. A soft-tipped guidewire was passed through the cystic duct and papilla into the duodenum. A papillotome was inserted endoscopically over the guidewire. Endoscopic sphincterectomy was performed and the stones removed with balloon and basket catheters. RESULTS: Endoscopic stone removal was successful in 94% of cases without complications related to ERCP or surgery. Although operative time was lengthened by about 20 minutes, the hospital stay was as short and equal to that for simple laparoscopic cholecystectomy (3 days on average). CONCLUSIONS: The single-step combined endoscopic-laparoscopic technique is safe and effective for treatment of patients with gallbladder and bile duct stones.     

Treatment of biliary leakages after cholecystectomy and importance of stricture development in the main bile duct injury.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Endoscopic treatment of biliary leakages after cholecystectomy, though widely accepted, has some restrictions. The efficacy and safety of endoscopic treatments in this patient group are evaluated in this study, and the problem of biliary stricture development in time after biliary ductal injuries is also emphasized. METHODS: Seventy-four patients (20 male, 54 female, mean age 50.9+/-21 years) referred for ERCP between 1992-2002 were included in the study. Minor leakages (cystic duct leaks, accessory bile duct leaks) were managed by nasobiliary drainage +/- endoscopic sphincterotomy; major leakages were managed by nasobiliary drainage +/- endoscopic sphincterotomy +/- stenting. RESULTS: Twenty-seven patients with cystic duct leaks and 6 patients with accessory bile duct leaks were successfully treated with nasobiliary drainage. Endoscopic treatment could not be performed on patients with total bile duct obstruction (7 patients) and aberrant bile duct injury (7 patients). All leakages from main bile ducts were closed (27 patients). Six of 27 patients had strictures at the beginning and they were treated by stenting. Twenty-one patients had no strictures at the beginning. Eight of 21 were treated by stenting and only 1 of them developed biliary stricture. Seven of 13 patients who had been treated by nasobiliary drainage developed biliary strictures. There were no mortalities due to procedure. CONCLUSIONS: ERCP is an effective and safe method for diagnosis and management of bile leakages after cholecystectomy. Stricture development in the main bile duct leakages was an important complication.     

Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography in Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy

Abstract: With the widespread use of laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC), the role of pre- and postoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) and / or endoscopic sphincterotomy (ES) has become very important. Indications for ERCP with possible ES before LC include clinical suspicion of a common bile duct (CBD) stone alone, evidence of jaundice, recent cholangitis or pancreatitis that is probably due to a duct stone or dilated CBD. Local endoscopic and surgical expertise are important factors in deciding the approach to the pre-LC patients. The success rate of ductal clearance of stones by ES approaches 90 to 95% in expert hands. ERCP is very effective in the management of post-LC patients with symptoms, as well as in diagnosing and treating complications such as retained stones, ductal leaks and strictures.     

Role of ERCP and Therapeutic Biliary Endoscopy in Association with Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy

Laparoscopic removal is rapidly becoming the preferred method of cholecystectomy; however, choledocholithiasis cannot usually be managed with a laparoscopic approach. Combined endoscopic sphincterotomy and laparoscopic cholecystectomy is a potential solution to this problem. To determine the feasibility of this combined procedure we studied 41 patients who had both endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) and laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Indications for ERCP included jaundice, gallstone pancreatitis, dilated ducts on sonography, elevated liver enzymes, or stones seen on operative cholangiography. Twenty-eight patients had ERCP preoperatively. Nine patients had common duct stones; these were successfully removed from eight patients after sphincterotomy. Two patients had unexpected strictures requiring a change in surgical approach. Thirteen patients had ERCP postoperatively. Eight of those patients had common duct stones, and all were successfully removed following endoscopic sphincterotomy. Three patients had postoperative strictures, one of which was treated by endoscopic stent placement. No complications as a result of ERCP or sphincterotomy were encountered. ERCP and endoscopic sphincterotomy can be safely performed both preoperatively and as early as 1 day postoperatively. If indicators of choledocholithiasis are present, preoperative ERCP is preferred, because stone removal occasionally is unsuccessful, and cholangiographic findings may change the operative approach. Postoperative ERCP can define and, in some instances, treat biliary tract injuries resulting from laparoscopic cholecystectomy.     

A Case of Post-Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy Bile Leakage from the Cystic Duct Treated by Endoscopic Nasobiliary Drainage without EST

Abstract: The patient was a 45 year old female with cholelithiasis who had undergone laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Bile leakage was detected from the site of Penrose drain insertion immediately after the operation. As no improvement of bile leakage was subsequently observed, ERCP (endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography) was performed on the third postoperative day. Neither choledocholithiasis nor choledochal stricture was found and the diagnosis of bile leakage from the cystic duct stump was made. A 5Fr ENBD (endoscopic nasobiliary drainage)-tube without EST (endoscopic sphincterotomy) was inserted into the common bile duct, and bile leakage disappeared completely on the third day after insertion of the ENBD tube. Additional laparotomy, EST or biliary stenting was thereby avoided. Choledo-chography, via the ENBD-tube, showed no leakage of contrast material, the ENBD-tube was removed and the patient was discharged. ENBD should be considered as a method of treatment for management of bile leaks from the cystic duct stump.     

Sphincterotomy in the treatment of biliary leakage

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Endoscopic procedures such as sphincterotomy and endobiliary stenting have proved useful to solve postoperative bile leakage. We have assessed the outcome of a series of such patients initially treated with endoscopic sphincterotomy, having reserved stent placement for treatment failures only. METHODOLOGY: Twenty-five consecutive patients referred for endoscopic assessment of postoperative bile leaks and fistulas after cholecystectomy (n = 15), orthotopic liver transplantation (n = 9) and hepatic resection due to cystic hydatid disease (n = 1) underwent endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography and sphincterotomy using a standard papillotome. Sphincterotomy was followed by stone extraction using a Dormia basket if common bile duct lithiasis were present. RESULTS: Bile leaks healed early after endoscopic sphincterotomy in 22 out of 25 patients (88%). Common bile duct stones were also retrieved in 6 of these patients. Bile duct stenosis due to surrounding pancreatic inflammation was demonstrated in two of the patients in which sphincterotomy failed to stop bile leakage. CONCLUSIONS: Endoscopic sphincterotomy alone should at present be considered a highly effective treatment to resolve postsurgical bile leaks unless bile strictures are present.     

The management of bile duct stones.

Bile duct stones are almost always associated with gallbladder stones and coexist with gallbladder stones in approximately 10% of patients. The frequency of coexisting bile duct stones increases with advancing age. In patients with stones in both the gallbladder and bile duct, therapeutic options for the latter include laparoscopic or open exploration of the bile duct, and pre-operative and post-operative endoscopic sphincterotomy and stone extraction. Endoscopic sphincterotomy remains the treatment of choice for bile duct stones after cholecystectomy. However, management algorithms in individual institutions will be influenced by surgical and endoscopic expertise and by other factors such as overall costs. After surgical or endoscopic removal of bile duct stones, estimates of the lifetime risk of recurrent stones range from 5%-20%. Increased life expectancy and the apparent absence of simple preventative measures indicate that the burden of bile duct stones on health expenditure is likely to increase in many countries.     

Endoscopic management of postcholecystectomy biliary leakage

BACKGROUND: Biliary leak is an uncommon but significant complication following cholecystectomy. Endotherapy is an established method of treatment. However, the optimal intervention is not known. METHOD: Eighty-five patients with postcholecystectomy biliary leaks from July 2000 to March 2009 were retrospectively evaluated. RESULTS: The study population was 20 males and 65 females with a mean age of 42.47 years. Patients presented with abdominal pain (46), jaundice (23), fever (23), abdominal distension (42), or bilious abdominal drain (67). Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography detected a leak at the cystic duct stump in 45 patients, stricture with middle common bile duct leak in 4, leak from the right hepatic duct in 3, and a ligated common bile duct in 32. Twelve also had bile duct stones. One had a broken T-tube with stones Endotherapy was possible in 53 patients. Three patients with stones, one with a broken T-tube with stones, and 4 with stricture of the common bile duct with a leak were managed with sphincterotomy and stenting. Eight patients with a cystic duct stump leak with stones were managed with sphincterotomy and stone extraction. Three outpatients and 12 inpatients with a cystic duct stump leak were managed with sphincterotomy and stent and sphincterotomy and nasobiliary drain, respectively. Five patients with a cystic duct stump leak were managed with stenting. Sixteen with coagulopathy were managed with only nasobiliary drain (9) or stent (7). Leak closure was achieved in 100% patients Four developed mild pancreatitis which improved with conservative treatment.CONCLUSIONS: Endoscopic intervention is a safe and effective method of treatment of postcholecystectomy biliary leaks. However, management should be individualized based on factors such as outpatients or inpatients, presence of stone, stricture, ligature, or coagulopathy.     

Migrated endoclip and stone formation after cholecystectomy： A new danger of acute pancreatitis

Endoclip migration into the common bile duct following laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) is an extremely rare complication. Migrated endoclip into the common bile duct can cause obstruction,serve as a nidus for stone formation,and cause cholangitis. We report a case of obstructive jaundice and acute biliary pancreatitis due to choledocholithiasis caused by a migrated endoclip 6 mo after LC. The patient underwent early endoscopic retrog-rade cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) with endoscopic sphincterotomy and stone extraction.     

Endoscopic management of bile duct stones

The advantages of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) over open surgery make it the predominant method of treating choledocholithiasis. Today, technologic advances such as magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography and laparoscopic surgery are challenging ERCP's primacy in the management of common bile duct (CBD) stones. This article reviews the current status of endoscopic treatment of biliary stones and examines this in relation to laparoscopic management. The techniques and safety of endoscopic sphincterotomy and balloon sphincteroplasty are reviewed. Balloon sphincteroplasty should be limited to study protocols because of safety questions and inherent limitations. After sphincterotomy, 85% to 90% of CBD stones can be removed with a Dormia basket or balloon catheter. These techniques are described as having both advantages and disadvantages. Methods for managing "difficult stones" include mechanical lithotripsy, intraductal shock wave lithotripsy, extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, chemical dissolution, and biliary stenting. These approaches are presented along with data supporting their use in specific situations. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy has emerged as the preferred alternative to open cholecystectomy. Parallel advances in the endoscopic and laparoscopic management of CBD stones have made the issue regarding the optimal treatment strategy complex. Three approaches to the management of choledocholithiasis in the laparoscopic era are presented as follows: strict therapeutic splitting, flexible therapeutic splitting, and strict laparoscopic management. The optimal approach needs to be defined in prospective comparative trials. For now, preoperative endoscopic stone extraction should still be recommended as the approach of choice in patients suspected to have CBD stones based on clinical, biochemical, and imaging parameters. Primary laparoscopic evaluation and management is reasonable in patients who have a low-to-moderate probability of having CBD stones.     

Technical aspects in the laparoscopic management of complicated common bile duct stones

The management of common bile duct (CBD) stones traditionally required open laparotomy and bile duct exploration. With the advent of endoscopic and laparoscopic technology in the latter half of last century, endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) and laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) has become the mainstream treatment for CBD stones and gallstones in most medical centers around the world. However, in certain situations, ERCP cannot be feasible because of difficult cannulation and extraction. ERCP can also be associated with potential serious complications, in particular for complicated stones requiring repeated sessions and additional maneuvers. Since our first laparoscopic exploration of the CBD (LECBD) in 1995, we now adopt the routine practice of the laparoscopic approach in dealing with endoscopically irretrievable CBD stones. The aim of this article is to describe the technical details of this approach and to review the results from our series.     

Laparoscopic exploration of the common bile duct through a choledochotomy: Report of three cases

This article reports three cases of totally intraabdominal laparoscopic exploration of the common bile duct via a choledochotomy with extraction of stones. The patients had failed endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) stone extraction because of the size of the stones in two instances, and in the third, because of the presence of a duodenal diverticulum. This procedure is a promising solution to the problem of large common bile duct (CBD) stones in centers which have established laparoscopic cholecystectomy expertise.     

Gallstone disease. Management of common bile-duct stones and associated gallbladder stones: Surgical aspects

For many years, open exploration of the common bile duct has been the treatment of choice for patients with common bile-duct stones. During recent decades endoscopic sphincterotomy has gained wide acceptance as an effective and less invasive alternative. After sphincterotomy, subsequent (laparoscopic) cholecystectomy is warranted in patients with gallbladder stones. This chapter will discuss whether sphincterotomy should be performed prior to, during or after cholecystectomy, and will also address the question of whether single-stage treatment by laparoscopic cholecystectomy and laparoscopic bile-duct exploration is in fact preferable. The rate of recurrent choledocholithiasis after endoscopic biliary sphincterotomy can reach more than 20%. This review focuses on the risk factors--delayed bile-duct clearance and bactobilia--that may lead to recurrent primary bile-duct stone formation. Underlying altered bile composition (relative phospholipid deficiency) should be recognised in a subgroup of patients. Identification of these risk factors may significantly affect treatment policy.     

经内镜鼻胆管引流术在腹腔镜胆管探查中的作用

目的：应用经内镜鼻胆管引流术(ENBD)作为腹腔镜胆管探查术(LCBDE)胆管引流方式，探讨其应用价值。方法：对拟行腹腔镜下胆管探查的患者术前进行ENBD，后经胆总管探查切口应用液电碎石、胆道镜取石，将肝内外胆管结石取净，保留鼻胆管于胆管内，将胆总管探查切口一期缝合，常规放置腹腔引流管。术后经鼻胆管造影，肝内外胆管无残余结石，无胆漏，择期拔除腹腔引流管及鼻胆管。结果：共43例患者术前行ENBD，平均6．1d后行LCBDE。36例(83.7％)患者成功进行LCBDE，胆管探查切口一期缝合。术后经鼻胆管造影，发现1例(2．6％)术中胆道镜漏诊--小结石，经内镜取石后痊愈；无胆管狭窄及胆漏等并发症发生。另有7例患者(18．6％)中转开腹手术，其中2例保留鼻胆管，胆管切口行一期缝合，术后顺利拔除鼻胆管。38例患者(88．4％)均成功应用：ENBD进行胆管引流，平均3．2d拔除腹腔引流管，6.7d拔除鼻胆管，无相关并发症发生。结论：ENBD作为LCBDE胆管引流，是安全有效的方式，且术后引流时间短，并发症少，可充分发挥出腹腔镜治疗胆管结石微创的优势。     

Endoscopic sphincterotomy for retained common duct stones

Twenty-one patients with retained stones after biliary surgery were managed by endoscopic sphincterotomy and stone extraction in the postoperative period. The bile duct was cleared of stones in 20 patients (95%). In one patient stone extraction was unsuccessful. There were no complications. Compared to percutaneous trans-T-tube tract stone extraction, endoscopic sphincterotomy does not require a 6 week waiting period. Endoscopic sphincterotomy should be considered for retained bile duct stones if endoscopic expertise is available.