The causes of racial and ethnic differences in influenza vaccination rates among elderly Medicare beneficiaries

OBJECTIVE: To explore three potential causes of racial/ethnic differences in influenza vaccination rates in the elderly: (1) resistant attitudes and beliefs regarding vaccination by African-American and Hispanic Medicare beneficiaries, (2) poor access to care during influenza vaccination weeks, and (3) discriminatory behavior by providers. DATA SOURCES: Medicare beneficiaries who responded to both the 1995 and 1996 Medicare Current Beneficiary Survey (MCBS) (n=6,746). STUDY DESIGN: We combined survey information from the MCBS with Medicare claims. We measured resistance to vaccination by self-reported reasons for not receiving vaccination, access to care by claims submitted during vaccination weeks, and discrimination by racial differences in vaccinations among beneficiaries who visited the same providers during vaccination weeks. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: White beneficiaries (66.6 percent) were more likely to self-report having received vaccination than were African Americans (43.3 percent) or Hispanics (52.5 percent). Resistance to vaccination plays a role in low vaccination rates of African-American (-11.8 percentage points), but not Hispanic beneficiaries. Unequal access accounts for <2 percent of the disparity. Minority beneficiaries remained unvaccinated despite having medical encounters with their usual providers on days when those same providers were administering vaccinations to white beneficiaries. This disparity is attributable not to provider discrimination but to a 1.6-5 x higher likelihood of white beneficiaries initiating encounters for the purpose of receiving vaccination. CONCLUSION: Disparities in access to care and provider discrimination play little role in explaining racial/ethnic disparities in influenza vaccination. Eliminating missed opportunities for vaccination in 1995 would have raised vaccination rates in three racial/ethnic groups to the Healthy People 2000 goal of 60 percent vaccination.     

Childhood Hib vaccination and pneumonia and influenza burden in US seniors

This analysis examines the potential for the elderly to receive indirect protection from pneumonia and influenza (P&I) from vaccination of children. Using data from the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, the National Immunization Survey, and the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, mixed-effects models were used to assess associations between vaccination coverage and P&I on the state level overall and by urbanicity and income. As vaccination coverage in children increased, the state-level P&I rates in seniors decreased (β = −0.040, −0.074 to 0.006), where β represents the expected change in the logged age-associated rate of disease increase for a one-percentage point increase in vaccination coverage. Increasing vaccination coverage in the elderly was associated with an increase in P&I rates (β = 0.045, 0.011–0.077) in seniors. The degree of association was more prominent in urban and high income areas. The consistent associations between influenza in the elderly and vaccination coverage in children suggest that routine vaccination of children may impart some indirect protection to the elderly.     

Variations in the use of physician services by Medicare beneficiaries.

Variations in the utilization of physicians' services by Medicare enrollees in Michigan are examined in this article. Two measures of market-area utilization are estimated. One is the standard per capita utilization rate, which has been the common focus of many small area variation studies. The second measures the intensity with which physicians treat their patients and can be taken as an indicator of the so-called practice-style phenomenon. The results show that, although substantial intermarket variation in per capita utilization is found, the variations are not as large as one might expect and are considerably less than the variations in per capita utilization for Michigan's Blue Shield population. More important, the relationship between a market's per capita utilization and intensity of care of primary care physicians is insignificant. The relevance of these findings, especially within the context of the practice style hypothesis and policy proposals that would establish physician practice norms, are discussed.     

Factors affecting interstate use of inpatient care by Medicare beneficiaries.

This article examines the extent to which interstate inflow and outflow of patients affects their observed use of Medicare Part A inpatient care. Interstate patient flow can bias utilization rates and may be due to seasonal migration, interstate inpatient care market areas, or purposive seeking of specialized/high-quality care. Examination of state level patient flow data drawn from 1987 Medicare discharge indicate that most interstate patient flow occurs between adjacent states probably as an outgrowth of interstate markets. Regression analyses of patient flow data suggest that while seasonal migration is an important determinant of patient flow, its importance is secondary to that of indicators of the availability of specialized services. These findings suggest research questions that may be best answered in detailed analyses of inpatient utilization in interstate market areas and seasonal migration.     

Surveillance for Guillain-Barré syndrome after influenza vaccination among U.S. Medicare beneficiaries during the 2017–2018 season

BackgroundThe U.S. Food and Drug Administration and the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services have been actively monitoring the risk of Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) following influenza vaccination among Fee-for-Service (FFS) Medicare beneficiaries every season since 2008. We present our evaluation of the GBS risk following influenza vaccinations during the 2017–2018 season.MethodsWe implemented a multilayered approach to active safety surveillance that included near real-time surveillance early in the season, comparing GBS rates post-vaccination during the 2017–2018 season with rates from five prior seasons using the Updating Sequential Probability Ratio Test (USPRT), and end-of-season self-controlled risk interval (SCRI) analyses.ResultsWe identified approximately 16 million influenza vaccinations. The near real-time surveillance did not signal for a potential 2.5-fold increased GBS risk either in days 8–21 or 1–42 post-influenza vaccination. In the SCRI analyses, we did not detect statistically significant increased GBS risks among influenza-vaccinated Medicare beneficiaries ≥65 years for either the 8–21 or 1–42-day risk windows for all seasonal vaccines combined, high-dose vaccine, or standard-dose vaccines; we did detect an increased GBS risk in days 8–21 post-vaccination for individuals vaccinated with the adjuvanted vaccine (OR: 3.75; 95% CI: 1.01, 13.96), although this finding was not statistically significant after multiplicity adjustment (p = 0.146).ConclusionsOur multilayered surveillance approach—which allows for early detection of elevated GBS risk and provides reliable end-of-season SCRI estimates of effect size—did not identify an increased GBS risk following 2017–2018 influenza vaccinations. The slightly increased GBS risk with the adjuvanted vaccine, which was not statistically significant following multiplicity adjustment, is consistent with the package inserts of all U.S.-licensed influenza vaccines, which warn of a potential low increased GBS risk. The benefits of influenza vaccines in preventing morbidity and mortality heavily outweigh this potential risk.     

Utilization of Medicare services by beneficiaries having partial Medicare coverage.

With the rapid increases in Medicare expenditures, policymakers are constantly reevaluating the use of and the need for services provided. One approach to better understand these issues is to identify major subgroups of the Medicare population for more detailed evaluation. A disaggregation of the data can pinpoint critical high expenditure areas for further study and may suggest potential cost containment strategies. With funding from the Health Care Financing Administration (HCFA), a series of investigations were designed to study utilization of services by particular types of Medicare beneficiaries. These include: Those who are continuously enrolled in the program over time. Those who died. Those who recently joined Medicare. Those who have one part of Medicare without the other part. This article discusses findings concerning beneficiaries who have only partial Medicare coverage (such as those who are enrolled under one part of Medicare without the other part).     

Mammography facility characteristics and repeat mammography use among Medicare beneficiaries

BACKGROUND: The goal of this study was to examine mammography facility characteristics and explore how such characteristics may impact repeat mammography use. METHODS: Mammography facility characteristics were obtained through a mailed a 21-item survey to Kansas mammography facilities. Medicare mammography claims were used to calculate facility-specific repeat mammography rates. Administrative data included female Kansas beneficiaries aged 65 years and older (N = 39,035) with a baseline mammogram during 1999. Beneficiaries with a mammography claim 12-18 months after their baseline mammogram were deemed to have had a repeat mammogram. RESULTS: Completed surveys were received from 90% (N = 79) of the 97 facilities serving >10 beneficiaries. Most facilities were in rural communities (58%), had an on-site radiologist (58%), and mailed mammography reminders to patients (63%). Extended hours of operation and the acceptance of self-referrals were uncommon (33% and 37%, respectively). Few facilities employed a quality improvement team (33%) or measured annual patient return rates (18%), but many measured patient satisfaction (57%). Of the beneficiaries, 61% had a repeat mammogram during the subsequent 12-18 months (range, 0% to 84%). Facilities notifying primary care providers of patients due for mammograms had higher repeat mammography rates. Multiple regression analyses found that higher repeat mammography rates were associated with facilities that accepted self-referrals, measured patient satisfaction, were in urban areas, and served a larger proportion of white beneficiaries. CONCLUSION: Mammography facility characteristics and repeat mammography rates vary widely. Although modifiable facility characteristics that may influence repeat mammography need additional study, results from this study indicate that mammography facilities are an opportunistic arena for quality improvement endeavors.     

Influenza vaccination and self-reported reasons for not receiving influenza vaccination among Medicare beneficiaries aged > or =65 years--United States, 1991-2002

Annual influenza vaccination of the U.S. elderly population has been demonstrated as safe and effective in reducing the risks of illness, hospitalization, and death. The Medicare Current Beneficiary Survey (MCBS) has measured annual influenza vaccination rates since 1991; the latest data available are for the 2001-02 influenza season. Since 1996, self-reported reasons for not receiving influenza vaccine also have been measured. During 1991-2002, MCBS indicated a steady upward trend in vaccination coverage among Medicare beneficiaries, with the exception of the 2000-01 influenza season, when vaccine distribution was delayed. The most frequently cited reasons for not receiving influenza vaccine were 1) not knowing that influenza vaccination was needed and 2) concerns that vaccination might cause influenza or side effects. During the 2000-01 influenza season, vaccine shortage or unavailability was noted for the first time as an important reason for nonvaccination. Further efforts are needed to educate the elderly regarding the benefits of influenza vaccination and to address any concerns regarding the safety of the vaccine.     

Pneumococcal vaccination: an important strategy to prevent pneumonia in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island adults

Abstract: The objective of the study was to examine the appropriateness of the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) recommendations concerning pneumococcal vaccination for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island adults. Laboratory surveillance of invasive pneumococcal disease identified 95 cases acquired by adults 15 years of age and over in Far North Queensland from 1992 to 1995. The most common diagnosis was pneumonia (77 per cent). Sixty–one cases (64 per cent) occurred in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island adults, who acquired the disease at a younger age (mean 40 years) than did other adults (mean 50 years). Most (93 per cent) of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island adults had at least one of the pre–existing medical conditions in the NMHRC criteria for pneumococcal vaccination. The most common was 'alcohol abuse' (62 per cent). Fifty–three (93 per cent) of the pneumococcal isolates from the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island adults who had pre–existing conditions were serotyped. Fifty (94 per cent) belonged to types included in the currently available pneumococcal vaccine. We conclude that the NHMRC recommendations for pneumococcal vaccination are appropriate, considering the pattern of invasive pneumococcal disease that occurs in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island adults in Far North Queensland. Because pneumococcal vaccination can reduce the pneumonia–associated morbidity and premature mortality experienced by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island adults, the vaccine should be offered routinely to those considered to be at risk, particularly young men who have recently begun to consume hazardous amounts of alcohol, and recently diagnosed diabetics.     

Use of specialty hospitals by Medicare beneficiaries, 1985.

Information is provided on the use and cost of inpatient services for Medicare beneficiaries discharged from participating specialty hospitals during 1985. Specialty hospitals include: psychiatric, general long-term, rehabilitation, children's, alcohol and drug, and Christian Science sanatoriums. Specialty units of short-stay hospitals are not included in the specialty hospital data presented in this article.     

Impact of Medicare on the use of medical services by disabled beneficiaries, 1972-1974.

The extension of Medicare coverage in 1973 to disabled persons receiving cash benefits under the Social Security Act provided an opportunity to examine the impact of health insurance coverage on utilization and expenses for Part B services. Data on medical services used both before and after coverage, collected through the Current Medicare Survey, were analyzed. Results indicate that access to care (as measured by the number of persons using services) increased slightly, while the rate of use did not. The large increase in the number of persons eligible for Medicare reflected the large increase in the number of cash beneficiaries. Significant increases also were found in the amount charged for medical services. The absence of large increases in access and service use may be attributed, in part, to the already existing source of third party payment available to disabled cash beneficiaries in 1972, before Medicare coverage.     

Service use and costs for Medicare beneficiaries in risk-based HMOs and CMPs: some interim results from the National Medicare Competition Evaluation.

The Health Care Financing Administration (HCFA) initiated the Medicare Competition Demonstration in 1982 in anticipation of congressional intent to establish a national program. Interim results on the 1984 service use and cost experience of the health maintenance organizations (HMOs) and competitive medical plans (CMPs) participating in the demonstrations indicate that Medicare enrollees in the demonstration experienced a median of 1,951 hospital days per 1,000 person years, 57 per cent of the median of 3,432 days per 1,000 in the local markets from which the plans drew enrollment. Independent practice association (IPA) HMOs experienced higher hospital use rates than staff and group model HMOs. These comparisons are not adjusted for various risk factors, the absence of which were likely to favor the demonstration plans. Plans with lower hospital service use were federally qualified and had been operating for more than five years. The median total annual revenue per enrollee across all plans was $2,312, compared to median annual expenses per enrollee of $2,250. The distribution of median annual expenses per enrollee by major category of expense was: institutional expenses ($1,038/enrollee), medical expenses ($720/enrollee), supplemental services expenses ($154/enrollee), and administrative and other expenses ($295/enrollee). Future analysis, using beneficiary-level data, will examine the impact of the demonstration and the nature and extent of evident biased selection and will compare the quality of care in the demonstrations to that in the fee-for-service sector.     

Is there any connection between a second pneumonia shot and hospitalization among Medicare beneficiaries?

To learn whether the risk of revaccination in adults should limit its use, the authors investigated whether adverse events requiring hospitalization occurred in a group of Medicare enrollees revaccinated with pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine. A prospective cohort analysis and case study of revaccinated people involved five percent of all elderly Medicare enrollees from 1985 through 1988, consisting of 66,256 people receiving one dose of vaccine and 1,099 receiving two doses. Comparison was made of the hospitalization rate within 30 days after revaccination and rates of singly vaccinated persons using discharge diagnosis for all those hospitalized during the 30 days after revaccination. No significant difference was found between the hospitalization rate of the revaccinated cohort and comparison group. No adverse reactions attributable to pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine causing hospitalization were identified among 39 revaccinated persons who were hospitalized within 30 days of revaccination. Revaccination of elderly Medicare beneficiaries does not cause events serious enough to require hospitalization. Vaccination of persons according to the Public Health Service Immunization Practice Advisory Committee guidelines is recommended when the prior immunization status is unknown.     

Pneumococcal vaccination by general practitioners: an evaluation of current practice.

During the first two years following registration of the 23-valent pneumococcal vaccine in Belgium, the numbers of doses administered were 166 and 211 per 10,000 inhabitants, representing a vaccination coverage of nearly 20% of the recommended target population as defined by the High Council for Public Health. The time course of vaccine use showed a seasonal variation with up to 74 and 85% of the doses administered from September through November in 1996 and 1997, respectively. Vaccination practices by general practitioners and the profile of the patients who received the pneumococcal vaccine were studied during the September through December period each year. Among the 18,236 patients included, 82% were above 60 years of age (mean age 69.5 years). The main indications for vaccination were chronic bronchopulmonary disease (41%) and cardiovascular disorders (26%). Age as the sole criterion was mentioned for only 17% of vaccine recipients. Sixty percent of the patients received influenza vaccine concomitantly. The intensity of the mass media campaign correlated with the public awareness of the national recommendations. These observations provide insight into current practices for pneumococcal vaccination in Belgium and suggest opportunities for future vaccination campaigns.     

Total hip arthroplasty: use and select complications in the US Medicare population.

Use and outcomes of primary total hip arthroplasty among US Medicare recipients more than 65 years of age were investigated by means of physician and hospital claims for a 5% random sample during 1986 through 1989. Cases involving hip fracture or evidence of existing orthopedic devices in the hip were omitted. Use rates were higher for women than for men and were substantially lower for Blacks than Whites. Major complications (death, further hip surgery, infection pulmonary embolism) were uncommon. These data document the frequent use of total hip arthroplasty, and confirm the rarity of serious adverse outcomes. Further studies should investigate the lower use of total hip arthroplasty among Blacks.