Predictors of bacteremia in emergency department patients with suspected infection

Objectives

The goal of this study is to identify clinical variables associated with bacteremia. Such data could provide a rational basis for blood culture testing in emergency department (ED) patients with suspected infection.

Methods

This is a secondary analysis of a prospective cohort of ED patients with suspected infection. Data collected included demographics, vital signs, medical history, suspected source of infection, laboratory and blood culture results and outcomes. Bacteremia was defined as a positive blood culture by Centers for Disease Control criteria. Clinical variables associated with bacteremia on univariate logistic regression were entered into a multivariable model.

Results

There were 5630 patients enrolled with an average age of 59.9 ± 19.9 years, and 54% were female. Blood cultures were obtained on 3310 (58.8%). There were 409 (12.4%) positive blood cultures, of which 68 (16.6%) were methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and 161 (39.4%) were Gram negatives. Ten covariates (respiratory failure, vasopressor use, neutrophilia, bandemia, thrombocytopenia, indwelling venous catheter, abnormal temperature, suspected line or urinary infection, or endocarditis) were associated with all-cause bacteremia in the final model (c-statistic area under the curve [AUC], 0.71). Additional factors associated with MRSA bacteremia included end-stage renal disease (odds ratio [OR], 3.9; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.9-7.8) and diabetes (OR, 2.0; 95% CI, 1.1-3.6) (AUC, 0.73). Factors strongly associated with Gram-negative bacteremia included vasopressor use in the ED (OR, 2.8; 95% CI, 1.7-4.6), bandemia (OR, 3.5; 95% CI, 2.3-5.3), and suspected urinary infection (OR, 4.0; 95% CI, 2.8-5.8) (AUC, 0.75).

Conclusions

This study identified several clinical factors associated with bacteremia as well as MRSA and Gram-negative subtypes, but the magnitude of their associations is limited. Combining these covariates into a multivariable model moderately increases their predictive value.     

Tandem measurement of D-dimer and myeloperoxidase or C-reactive protein to effectively screen for pulmonary embolism in the emergency department

OBJECTIVES: The hypothesis was that the tandem measurement of D-dimer and myeloperoxidase (MPO) or C-reactive protein (CRP) could significantly decrease unnecessary pulmonary vascular imaging in emergency department (ED) patients evaluated for pulmonary embolism (PE) compared to D-dimer alone. METHODS: The authors measured the sequential combinations of D-dimer and MPO and D-dimer and CRP in a prospective sample of ED patients evaluated for PE at two centers. Patients were followed for 90 days for venous thromboembolism (VTE, either PE or deep venous thrombosis [DVT]), which required the consensus of two of three blinded physician reviewers. RESULTS: The authors enrolled 304 patients, 22 with VTE (7%; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 5% to 10%). The sensitivity and specificity of a D-dimer alone (cutoff > or = 500 ng/mL) were 100% (95% CI = 85% to 100%) and 59% (95% CI = 53% to 65%), respectively, and was followed by pulmonary vascular imaging negative for PE in 38% (115/304; 95% CI = 32% to 44%). The combination of either a negative D-dimer, or MPO < 22 mg/dL, had a sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 73% (95% CI = 67% to 78%). Thus, tandem measurement of D-dimer and MPO would have decreased the frequency of subsequent negative pulmonary vascular imaging from 38% to 25% (95% CI of the difference of -13% = -5% to -20%). The combination of CRP and D-dimer would not have significantly improved the rate of negative imaging. CONCLUSIONS: The tandem measurement of D-dimer and MPO would have significantly decreased negative pulmonary vascular imaging compared with D-dimer alone and should be validated prospectively.     

Bedside review of patient care in an emergency department: The Cow Round

Objective: Clinical handover is a critical point in medical care in the ED, which can contribute to adverse effects for patient care and staff workloads. Over a 4 and a half months in a tertiary referral hospital ED, a centralized whiteboard handover was performed followed by a multidisciplinary review of each patient. This round was referred to as the ‘Cow Round’. Methodology: This observational study used a standardized feedback survey of clinicians leading each Cow Round. The survey asked participants in the round to report issues found, which were not handed over during the centralized whiteboard handover. Data were analysed for the number of issues identified, the type of issue identified, and to determine if there was a relationship between the number of issues reported and patients in the department. Results: 204 surveys met inclusion criteria. Clinical issues not handed over at the standard whiteboard round were found in 64% of Cow Rounds. Of the 2411 patients reviewed on Cow Rounds, 14.1% had at least one clinical issue not handed over during the whiteboard round. A mean of 2.2 issues per round (95% CI 1.9–2.5) were found. Pearson correlation found a relationship between the number of issues identified and the total number of patients in the department (r= 0.246 P= 0.005). Conclusion: Review of patients led by a senior member of medical staff, at the patient bedside enables the timely identification and management of issues not communicated during the whiteboard handover process. This review is important when more patients are receiving treatment in the department.     

Predicting bacteremia by procalcitonin levels in patients evaluated for sepsis in the emergency department

Neisseria gonorrhoeae has retained antimicrobial resistance to drugs previously recommended for first-line empiric treatment of gonorrhea, and resistance to ceftriaxone, the last option for monotherapy, is evolving. Crucial actions to combat this developing situation include implementing response plans; considering use of dual antimicrobial regimens; enhancing surveillance of gonorrhea, gonococcal antimicrobial resistance, treatment failures and antimicrobial use/misuse and improving prevention, early diagnosis, contact tracing and treatment. The ways forward also include an intensified research to identify novel antimicrobial resistance determinants and develop and evaluate appropriate use of molecular antimicrobial resistance testing, ideally point-of-care and with simultaneous detection of gonococci, to supplement culture-based methods and ideally guide tailored treatment. It is crucial with an enhanced understanding of the dynamics of the national and international emergence, transmission and evolution of antimicrobial-resistant gonococcal strains. Genome sequencing combined with epidemiological metadata will detail these issues and might also revolutionize the molecular antimicrobial resistance testing. Ultimately, novel antimicrobials are essential and some antimicrobials in development have shown potent in vitro activity against gonococci. Several of these antimicrobials deserve further attention for potential future treatment of gonorrhea.     

Predicting bacteremia by procalcitonin levels in patients evaluated for sepsis in the emergency department

Evaluation of: Riedel S, Melendez JH, An AT, Rosenbaum JE, Zenilman JM. Procalcitonin as a marker for the detection of bacteremia and sepsis in the emergency department. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 135(2), 182-189 (2011). In a recent report, Riedel et al. proposed a procalcitonin cutoff of 0.1 ng/ml to rule out bacteremia in adult patients presenting to the emergency department with systemic infections. Procalcitonin levels were higher in patients with true bacteremia than in patients with negative blood cultures or bacteremia due to possible contaminants. For prediction of bacteremia, a procalcitonin level of 0.1 ng/ml had an excellent negative predictive value of 96.3%, and a good sensitivity of 75%, specificity of 70.6% and area under the curve of 0.73, but poor positive predictive value of 12.8%. Based on the results in this study, we propose that a procalcitonin value of 0.1 ng/ml or less could be used to rule out bacteremia (NPV: 96.3%).     

Morbidity and mortality risk factors in emergency department patients with Acinetobacter baumannii bacteremia

BACKGROUND: Acinetobacter baumannii (AB) bacteremia is an increasingly common and often fatal nosocomial infection. Identification of morbidity and mortality risk factors for AB bacteremia in emergency department (ED) patients may provide ways to improve the clinical outcomes of these patients.     

D-二聚体对急诊脓毒症患者预后价值的前瞻性研究

目的 探讨D-二聚体浓度能否预测急诊脓毒症患者28 d病死率,以及D-二聚体浓度对于脓毒症患者预后的意义.方法 采用前瞻性研究方法,选取2009年10月至2010年7月首都医科大学附属北京朝阳医院急诊科766例脓毒症患者,检测患者入院时的血中D-二聚体浓度(固相免疫层析法),并记录各项实验室检测指标和临床生理指标.以28 d为终点比较存活组与死亡组患者的D-二聚体水平、急性生理学与慢性健康状况评分系统Ⅱ(APACHEⅡ)评分和简化急性生理学评分系统Ⅱ(SAPSⅡ)评分;分析D-二聚体水平与28 d病死率的关系.结果 766例脓毒症患者28 d内共有233例死亡,死亡组血中D-二聚体浓度(μg/L)明显高于存活组[1220.0(789.0,1835.0)比323.0(158.0,642.0),P＜0.01].D-二聚体水平与APACHEⅡ评分和SAPSⅡ评分均呈显著正相关(r1=0.643,r2=0.632,均P＜0.01).D-二聚体水平预测28 d病死率的受试者工作特征曲线(ROC曲线)下面积为0.880,95％可信区间(95％CI)为0.855～0.904,P＜0.001,预测28 d病死率的最佳界值为663.5 μg/L.血中D-二聚体＞663.5μg/L、APACHEⅡ评分＞19.5分和SAPSⅡ评分＞39.5分是预测患者28 d病死率的独立危险因素[优势比(OR值)分别为17.5、15.7、19.6,均P＜0.001].D-二聚体＜ 250.0、250.0～663.5、＞663.5 μg/L 3组间28 d病死率(1.4％、12.3％、64.2％)、APACHEⅡ评分[分:11(9,13)、13(11,16)、19(15,22)]、SAPSⅡ评分[分:24(18,29)、31(24,36)、40(33,49)]比较差异均有统计学意义(均P＜0.01).结论 D-二聚体水平是预测急诊脓毒症患者28 d病死率的独立指标.其预测能力与APACHEⅡ评分和SAPSⅡ评分十分相近;检测D-二聚体水平有助于脓毒症患者的危险分层.     

Toward early identification of acute lung injury in the emergency department.

BACKGROUND: There are no studies evaluating the epidemiology of pediatric acute lung injury (ALI) in the emergency department (ED), where early identification and interventions are most likely to be helpful. The purpose of this study was to describe the epidemiology of the ALI precursor acute hypoxemic respiratory failure (AHRF) in the ED. METHODS: We analyzed 11,664 pediatric patient records from 16 EDs. Records were selected if oxygen saturation (SpO(2)) was recorded during the visit. Virtual partial pressure of oxygen (pO(2)) was calculated from SpO(2), thus allowing calculation of ratios of pO(2) to fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO(2)) (PFRs). Patients with a PFR < 300 were classified as having AHRF. Univariate analyses and logistic regression were used to test the association of clinical factors with the presence of AHRF and intubation. RESULTS: AHRF criteria (ie, PFR < 300) were met in 121 (2.9%) of the 4,184 patients with an oxygenation measurement. The following variables were independently associated with ALI: higher Pediatric Risk of Admission II score (adjusted odds ratio [95% confidence interval (CI)] = 1.12 [1.08-1.16]; p < .001), higher heart rate (1.02 [1.01-1.03]; p = .009), a positive chest radiograph (2.35 [1.02-5.43]; p = .045), and lower temperature (0.49 [0.36-0.68]; p < .001).The final model had an R(2) = .20. CONCLUSION: We found nonintubated AHRF to be prevalent in the ED. The low R(2) for the regression model for AHRF underscores the lack of criteria for early identification of patients with respiratory compromise. Our findings represent an important first step toward establishing the true incidence of ALI in the pediatric ED.     

Bedside sonography by emergency physicians for the rapid identification of landmarks relevant to cricothyrotomy

Introduction

Cricothyrotomy is a difficult, infrequently performed lifesaving procedure.

Objectives

The objectives of the study were to develop a standardized ultrasound technique to sonographically identify the cricothyroid membrane (CM) and to evaluate the ability of emergency physicians (EPs) to apply the technique in a cohort of Emergency Department (ED) patients.

Methods

Four cadaveric models were used to develop a technique to accurately identify the CM. Two EPs then sonographically imaged 50 living subjects. Time to visualization of the CM and relevant landmarks, as well as perception of landmark palpation difficulty, were recorded.

Results

Fifty subjects were enrolled, and relevant structures were identified in all participants. The mean time to visualization of the CM was 24.32 ± 20.18 seconds (95% confidence interval, 18.59-30.05 seconds). Although a significant relationship between palpation difficulty and body mass index was noted, body mass index did not impact physician ability to identify the CM.

Conclusions

Emergency physicians were able to develop and implement a reliable sonographic technique for the identification of anatomy relevant to performing an emergent cricothyrotomy.     

Prediction of community-onset bacteremia among febrile adults visiting an emergency department: rigor matters

Objectives

Bacteremia is a severe bacterial infection with significant mortality and morbidity. Clinical parameters that reliably predict the presence of community-onset bacteremia are less elucidated.

Methods

During 96 randomly selected days between August 2006 and July 2007, a prospective study was conducted to analyze the risk factors of community-onset bacteremia among febrile adults who visited the emergency department (ED) of a medical center. Patients hospitalized in the 30 days prior to the study, patients experiencing consciousness alteration, and nursing facility residents were excluded.

Results

The mean age of the 396 febrile adults enrolled in the study was 53.8 years (range, 18–95 years), and 60 (15.2%) patients had true bacteremia, with the predominance of monomicrobial Gram-negative pathogens (42 patients). In a multivariate analysis, several factors were independently associated with community-onset bacteremia, including an age of >65 years (odds ratio [OR], 2.81; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.25–6.33), the presence of rigor (OR, 13.7; 95% CI, 4.47–42.0) or chills (OR, 6.04; 95% CI, 1.10–32.9), a body temperature >39.9 °C (OR, 2.68; 95% CI, 1.03–6.94), blood urea nitrogen >20 mg/dL (OR, 5.56; 95% CI, 2.03–15.7), a blood urea nitrogen/creatinine ratio >16 (OR, 2.29; 95% CI, 1.03–5.11), and thrombocytopenia (OR, 6.09; 95% CI, 1.84–20.0). After scoring each risk factor, a logistic regression model for the prediction of bacteremia was developed, and the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was 0.91.

Conclusions

Some easily determined clinical parameters were independently associated with community-onset bacteremia among febrile adults, and the most significant predictor was the presence of rigor. Although the proposed predictive model needs further validation, it may be of use for the early identification of bacteremic episodes in ED practice.     

Structure and function of the emergency department: matching emergency department choices to the emergency department mission

Emergency caregivers experience considerable new challenges to the provision of competent, compassionate care. The good news is there are ample new approaches and new technologies to meet those new challenges.ED leaders who understand the ED mission and the resources available today and who engage vigorously in the change process will turn that mission into immensely beneficial action.     

D-二聚体联合血清白蛋白对急诊科老年脓毒症患者预后的评估

目的 观察老年脓毒症患者D-二聚体(D-dimer)、血清白蛋白(ALB)的变化,评估两者对老年脓毒症患者预后的临床预测价值。方法 采用回顾性研究,收集2019年1月至2020年11月上海交通大学医学院附属第九人民医院急诊科收治的老年脓毒症(根据脓毒症-3标准定义)患者103例,根据出院时的预后分为存活组(78例)和死亡组(25例),使用独立样本t检验比较两组患者入院24 h内血白细胞(WBC)、血小板(PLT)、C反应蛋白(CRP)、D-dimer和ALB的水平。通过logistic回归分析影响患者预后的独立危险因素。应用ROC曲线和曲线下面积(AUC)评价D-dimer、ALB、及以D-dimer和ALB联合预测因子(D-dimer/ALB)对老年脓毒症患者预后的评估价值。结果 死亡组D-dimer水平[(9.39±7.74) mg/L比(2.08±1.71) mg/L]显著高于存活组(P <0.01),死亡组ALB水平[(29.84±4.24) g/L比(32.54±4.89) g/L]显著低于存活组(P=0.011)。多因素logistic回归分析显示,D-dimer(O...