同型半胱氨酸与2型糖尿病肾病的相关性研究

目的研究血清同型半胱氨酸(Hcy)与2型糖尿病(T2DM)伴发糖尿病肾病(DN)的关系。方法对60名T2DM患者进行24h尿蛋白,肾小球滤过率测定,并根据其结果分为单纯糖尿病组(DM)和DN组,另选择健康对照组20名。取空腹静脉血测定血糖(BG)、甘油三酯(TG)、糖化血红蛋白(HbAlc)、Hcy。结果DM患者血浆Hcy水平〔(15.01±5.99)μmol/L〕较健康对照组〔(12.00±1.96)μmol/L〕有明显升高(P<0.001)。将Hcy≥15.80μmol/L作为高Hcy血症的诊断标准,将T2DM分为高Hcy组和无高Hcy组,高Hcy组DN发生率比无高Hcy组明显升高(50%vs26.8%)(P<0.05)。各危险因素与DN多元回归分析表明,Hcy与DN的发生有关。结论Hcy血症是T2DM、DN的一个独立危险因素,Hcy为DN早期发现和临床诊断提供了有力的指标。     

老年代谢综合征患者血浆同型半胱氨酸水平与血管内皮功能的研究

目的探讨老年代谢综合征(MS)患者的血浆同型半胱氨酸(Hcy)水平及血管的内皮功能。方法选择老年MS患者40例(MS组)和健康查体者36例(NC组),检测血浆Hcy水平,同时应用超声检测内皮依赖性血管舒张功能(FMD)及硝酸甘油诱导的非内皮依赖性血管舒张功能(NID)。结果MS组Hcy〔(14.7±5.2)μmol/L〕明显高于NC组〔(10.2±3.1)μmol/L〕(P<0.01),FMD〔(6.7±2.1)%〕及NID〔(9.9±3.8)%〕低于NC组〔分别为(15.4±3.2)%,(15.6±4.1)%;P<0.05,P<0.01〕。FMD与年龄、BMI、TG、SBP、DBP、FBG呈负相关。结论老年MS患者血浆Hcy水平升高,血管内皮功能失调。     

高同型半胱氨酸血症与糖尿病患者颈动脉内膜中层厚度关系及强化控制的影响

目的探讨同型半胱氨酸(Hcy)水平与2型糖尿病患者颈动脉内中膜厚度(IMT)之间的关系及强化控制对血Hcy和IMT的影响。方法应用酶联免疫法测定161例2型糖尿病患者及127名正常对照者的血浆Hcy水平,对糖尿病组给予降糖、降压及调脂治疗随访12个月,检测治疗前后颈动脉IMT、Hcy,分析血浆Hcy水平与IMT之间的关系及强化控制后二者的变化。结果(1)糖尿病组血浆Hcy水平高于正常对照组[(11.9±6.5)μmol/Lvs(9.0±4.9)μmol/L,P<0.01];糖尿病组高Hcy血症(Hcy>15μmol/L)的患病率为36.0%,对照组高Hcy血症的患病率为9.4%(P<0.01)。(2)糖尿病组中的高Hcy组随访12个月后其IMT为(1.01±0.32)mm,而正常Hcy组IMT为(0.83±0.19)mm(P<0.01)。(3)COX回归分析显示,高Hcy血症是2型糖尿病患者IMT增厚的危险因素(P<0.01,OR=1.079,95%CI为1.033~1.127)。结论高Hcy血症可能是2型糖尿病合并早期动脉粥样硬化的危险因素之一。     

急性心肌梗死患者血浆同型半胱氨酸水平与冠状动脉病变的相关性研究

目的检测急性心肌梗死(AMI)患者血浆同型半胱氨酸的水平,观察高同型半胱氨酸血症(HHcy)与冠状动脉病变的相关性以及与其他危险因素的相关性,以探讨HHcy在心血管疾病中的作用。方法选择AMI患者50例,对照组为冠状动脉正常者共30例。检测血浆同型半胱氨酸(Hcy)、血糖(GLU)、血脂、C反应蛋白(CRP)、脑钠肽(BNP)。行心脏彩超检查记录E/A,左室射血分数(LVEF)。行冠状动脉造影记录冠状动脉病变支数、狭窄程度。结果冠状动脉三支病变组Hcy水平高于对照组〔(34.69±10.31)μmol/L,(9.57±2.57)μmol/L,P<0.05〕。冠状动脉三支病变组血浆Hcy水平高于双支病变组和单支病变组〔(46.78±2.42)μmol/L,(34.88±3.39)μmol/L,(22.36±3.24)μmol/L〕,冠状动脉双支病变组血浆Hcy水平高于单支病变组〔(34.88±3.39)μmol/L,(22.36±3.24)μmol/L〕,差异均有统计学意义(P<0.01)。AMI组中IRA狭窄程度100%组血浆Hcy水平高于100%>IRA≥95%组〔(37.27±10.06)μmol/L,(31.39±9.89)μmol/L,P<0.05〕(1例IRA狭窄程度<75%除外)。AMI组血浆Hcy与BNP呈正相关(r=0.162,P<0.05),与LVEF呈负相关(r=-0.235,P<0.05),与E/A无相关(r=0.072,P>0.05)。结论 (1)AMI患者血浆Hcy水平明显升高。(2)AMI患者血浆Hcy水平与冠状动脉病变支数、狭窄程度呈正相关。(3)HHcy可以作为冠心病的一个危险因素,与其他危险因素共同在冠心病的发生、发展中起重要作用。     

冠心病患者血浆同型半胱氨酸水平变化的临床特点

目的研究冠心病患者血浆同型半胱氨酸(Hcy)水平变化的临床特点.方法采用高压液相色谱法测定209例冠心病患者(冠心病组)和101例正常人(正常对照组)血浆Hcy水平.结果冠心病组血浆Hcy水平(23.42±26.87μmol/L)明显高于正常对照组(14.98±13.05μmol/L),有非常显著差异(P＜0.001),高Hcy血症所占比例(47.5%)高于正常对照组(20.6%),有非常显著差异(P＜0.001).冠心病组男性血浆总Hcy水平(24.85±28.38μmol/L)高于正常对照组男性(15.54±12.85μmnol/L),有非常显著差异(P＜0.001),而在冠心病女性(13.33±4.88μmnol/L)和正常对照组女性(13.23±13.75μmol/L)之间没有差异.并且,急性心肌梗塞患者血浆总Hcy水平明显高于心绞痛患者,零支、单支、双支、三支血管有病变者血浆总Hcy水平呈逐级上升趋势.结论我国冠心病患者血浆总Hcy水平明显升高,高Hcy血症所占比例较大,而Hcy对冠心病患者的影响主要在男性可能更明显.     

脑梗死患者血浆对氧磷酯酶-1和氧化低密度脂蛋白水平的变化及意义

目的探讨脑梗死患者血浆对氧磷酯酶-1(PON-1)活性和氧化低密度脂蛋白(ox-LDL)含量变化以及它们在脑梗死发生发展过程中的作用。方法用对氧磷为底物的速率法和酶联免疫吸附法(ELISA)分别测定75例急性期脑梗死患者血浆PON-1活性和ox-LDL水平,并与35例脑出血患者及46例健康对照组比较。结果(1)脑梗死患者血浆PON-1活性为(138.2±25.3)U/L,明显低于脑出血组〔(168.2±28.2)U/L〕及健康对照组〔(171.1±28.5)U/L〕(P<0.01);脑梗死患者血浆ox-LDL水平为〔(615.3±253.2)μg/L〕,明显高于脑出血组〔(460.9±193.0)μg/L〕及健康对照组〔(437.7±187.4)μg/L〕(P<0.01)。(2)大梗死灶组血浆PON-1活性明显低于中梗死灶组和小梗死灶组。而大梗死灶组血浆ox-LDL水平明显高于中梗死灶组和小梗死灶组(P<0.01)。(3)相关分析表明,脑梗死时血浆PON-1活性与ox-LDL水平呈负相关(r=-0.556,P<0.01),而与血脂水平无明显的相关关系。结论脑梗死患者血浆PON-1活性降低和ox-LDL水平升高,提示血浆PON-1可能通过降低抗氧化能力机制参与了脑梗死的病理生理过程。     

高胆固醇血症对离体兔主动脉血管内皮依赖性舒张反应的影响

目的 :探讨高胆固醇血症对血管内皮依赖性舒张反应的影响。　　方法 :2 0只新西兰雄性兔随机分为两组 :正常对照组 (10只 )及高胆固醇血症组 (10只 )。4周后取出每只兔的降主动脉 ,5 mm宽的动脉环放置于含有 2 5 ml Kreb液的组织—器官水浴系统中。分别测量游离血管对乙酰胆碱 (10 - 1 0 ～ 10 - 5mol/ L )和腺苷 (10 - 1 0 ～ 10 - 4 mol/ L )的舒张反应变化 (% )。　　结果 :两组血胆固醇水平有显著差异 (正常对照组 0 .78± 0 .2 9mmol/ L ,高胆固醇血症组 2 5 .6 7± 2 .86 mmol/ L ,P<0 .0 1) ;高胆固醇血症组血管对乙酰胆碱舒张反应〔最大 (5 8.2± 6 .1) %〕与正常对照组〔最大 (10 3.2± 6 .9) %〕比较明显减弱 (P<0 .0 1) ;高胆固醇血症组血管对腺苷舒张反应〔最大 (4 5 .2± 13.0 ) %〕也较正常对照组〔最大 (10 3.2± 9.9) %〕减弱 (P<0 .0 1)。两组动脉组织学检查无动脉硬化的改变。　　结论 :高胆固醇血症降低血管内皮依赖性舒张反应 ;高胆固醇血症时血管内皮功能改变早于动脉粥样硬化的结构改变。     

老年高同型半胱氨酸血症患者认知功能与心血管因素的关系

目的探讨老年高同型半胱氨酸血症患者认知功能与心血管危险因素的关系。方法选择2011年8月至2013年4月在中国医科大学附属第一医院老年病科住院的患者157例,男75例,女82例,年龄60⁷4〔平均(69.26±4.81)〕岁。根据血浆同型半胱氨酸(Hcy)水平,将患者分为Hcy<16μmol/L组(A组)45例,16μmol/L≤Hcy<30μmol/L组(B组)60例,Hcy≥30μmol/L组(C组)52例。使用Framingham评分(FRS)对心血管因素进行评定;采用简易精神状态量表(MMSE),蒙特利尔认知评估中文版(Mo CA)和日常生活能力量表(ADL)进行认知功能评估。结果与A组比较,B组的血浆Hcy水平显著升高(P<0.05),Mo CA评分显著降低(P<0.05),C组的血浆Hcy水平及FRS显著升高(均P<0.05),MMSE评分、Mo CA评分及ADL评分均显著降低(均P<0.05);与B组相比较,C组的血浆Hcy水平及FRS均显著升高(均P<0.05),MMSE评分及Mo CA评分均显著降低(均P<0.05);高Hcy血症患者的FRS与血浆Hcy水平呈显著正相关(均P<0.05),与MMSE评分及Mo CA评分均呈显著负相关(均P<0.05)。结论老年高同型半胱氨酸血症患者心血管危险因素与认知损害相关,血浆Hcy水平越高,FRS越高,认知功能评分越低。     

血同型半胱氨酸对急性心肌梗死患者直接经皮冠状动脉介入治疗后院内死亡的影响

目的　探讨血同型半胱氨酸(Hcy)对急性心肌梗死(AMI)患者直接经皮冠状动脉介入治疗(PCI)后院内死亡的影响。方法 选取2015年1月至2018年10月柳州市人民医院心血管内科收治的310例AMI患者作为研究对象,根据入院时血Hcy将其分为高Hcy组(Hcy>20.0 μmol/L,47例)和低Hcy组(Hcy≤20.0 μmol/L,263例)。比较两组患者一般资料、实验室检查指标、院内死亡率及梗死相关动脉、冠状动脉病变情况。AMI患者直接PCI后院内死亡的影响因素分析采用单因素、多因素Logistic回归分析;绘制ROC曲线以评价血Hcy对AMI患者直接PCI后院内死亡的预测价值。结果 高Hcy组患者年龄大于低Hcy组,高血压发生率、N末端脑钠肽前体(NT-proBNP)、院内死亡率高于低Hcy组(P<0.05)。多因素Logistic回归分析结果显示,入院时Killip分级〔OR=3.940,95%CI(1.960,7.920)〕、血Hcy〔OR=8.333,95%CI(1.527,45.474)〕、超敏C反应蛋白(hs-CRP)〔OR=1.025,95%CI(1...     

吸烟对高血压患者同型半胱氨酸水平的影响

目的探讨吸烟对高血压患者同型半胱氨酸(Hcy)水平的影响。方法共入选高血压住院患者118例,分为吸烟组50例和不吸烟组68例。采用循环酶法测定空腹血浆Hcy水平。结果 (1)与不吸烟组比较,吸烟组高血压患者血浆Hcy水平明显升高[(16.74±3.60)μmol/L比(9.64±3.12)μmol/L,P<0.01],H型高血压患者比例明显升高(48.0%比8.8%,P<0.001);(2)Logistic回归分析显示,吸烟史是高Hcy血症的独立危险因素(OR=6.269,95%CI 1.503～26.154,P<0.05)。结论吸烟可能是导致高血压患者血浆Hcy水平升高的独立危险因素。     

International Hemoglobin Information Center Policies - Ihic

Abstract

The levels of the inactive hemoglobin (Hb) pigments [such as methemoglobin (metHb), carboxyhemoglobin (HbCO) and sulfohemoglobin (SHb)] and the active Hb [in the oxyhemoglobin (oxyHb) form] as well as the blood Hb concentration in healthy non pregnant female volunteers were determined using a newly developed multi-component spectrophotometric method. The results of this method revealed values of SHb% in the range (0.0727–0.370%), metHb% (0.43–1.0%), HbCO% (0.4–1.52%) and oxyHb% (97.06–98.62%). Furthermore, the results of this method revealed values of blood Hb concentration in the range (12.608–15.777?g/dL). The method is highly sensitive, accurate and reproducible.     

慢型、潜在型克山病患者的血管内皮功能观察

目的观察山东省慢型、潜在型克山病患者的临床特点和血管内皮功能,探讨机体内皮功能失调与克山病发生发展的关系。方法选择慢型、潜在型克山病患者57人、病区健康人34人,分别采集清晨空腹血检测ET、NO、NOS、iNOS及cNOS含量及活性。结果(1)克山病患者ET水平明显高于病区健康人(P<0.01);心功能越差,ET升高越明显(P<0.01);(2)NO和NOS含量,潜在型、慢型克山病均明显高于病区健康人(P<0.01);慢型高于潜在型(P<0.01);iN-OS含量克山病患者也高于病区健康人(P<0.05);慢型克山病高于潜在型克山病(P<0.05)。结论ET、NO水平的变化可能作为一种中间环节参与了克山病的发病机制;心功能不同,血浆ET、NO升高的程度也不同;ET、NO可作为克山病病情严重程度的预测指标。     

The Mitochondrial Permeability Transition: Role in Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury

The mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) occurs when a non-specific pore opens in the inner mitochondrial membrane and converts the mitochondrion from an organelle whose ATP production sustains the normal function of the cell to an instrument of death. Conditions favouring the MPT including high [Ca2+], oxidative stress and adenine nucleotide depletion, all of which occur when a tissue is reperfused following a period of ischemia. Cyclosporin A (CsA) and low pH (<7.0) are potent inhibitors of the MPT. Methods have been devised to demonstrate directly that the MPT pores open upon reperfusion but not during ischemia. The mechanism of the MPT appears to involve binding of mitochondrial cyclophilin (CyP) to the adenine nucleotide translocase (ANT) followed by a calcium-mediated conformational change that converts the ANT into a non-specific pore. Understanding the molecular mechanism has assisted in devising strategies that can be used to protect tissues from damage caused by reperfusion injury. These might also be of benefit in the prevention of multiple organ failure for which reperfusion injury of the gut is thought to be the initial trigger. Protective regimes include the pretreatment of tissues prior to ischemia/reperfusion with CsA (binds to CyP), free radical scavengers that reduce oxidative stress (e.g., pyruvate and propofol) and agents that decrease pHi (e.g., pyruvate or amelioride derivatives). Reperfusion injury can produce both immediate cell death by necrosis or delayed apoptotic cell death and it appears that the mitochondria determine which route is taken. Prolonged opening leads to rapid cell death by necrosis, whilst transient opening leads to cytochrome c release and subsequent apoptosis hours or days later.     

Usefulness of procalcitonin for diagnosis of infective endocarditis

The aim of this study was to evaluate the accuracy of procalcitonin (PCT) in predicting infective endocarditis (IE). 23 adult patients with IE, 30 patients with sepsis and 30 with tick-borne encephalitis were included in this prospective study. The PCT serum level, C-reactive protein (CRP), total leukocyte, and immature polymorphonuclear (PMN) cell counts were determined on admission, prior to the institution of antibiotic therapy, and compared according to the diagnosis. The median PCT level in patients with IE endocarditis was 0.81 ng/ml, in patients with sepsis it was 43.74 ng/ml, and in the group with viral infection it was 0.25 ng/ml (P < 0.001). The highest PCT level was found in patients with Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve that used PCT to predict IE was 0.722 (95% CI 0.572–0.873), compared with 0.909 (95% CI 0.829–0.989) for CRP, 0.699 (95% CI 0.551–0.846) for immature PMN cell count, and 0.619 (95% CI 0.468–0.770) for leukocyte count. Our study fails to demonstrate superiority of PCT as a diagnostic laboratorial parameter in predicting IE compared to CRP.     

Linear affine transformations between 3-lead (Frank XYZ leads) vectorcardiogram and 12-lead electrocardiogram signals

Background

Recent advances in computer graphics and wireless technologies have renewed interest in vectorcardiogram (VCG) signals that use fewer leads than the conventional 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) signals for medical diagnostic applications. However, most cardiologists are accustomed to the 12-lead ECG even though some of the leads are either nearly aligned with or derived from the others and consequently contain redundant information. The ability to transform from orthogonal 3-lead VCG to 12-lead ECG enables the use of fewer leads for signal analysis, computer visualization, and wireless transmission of signals. This can also improve mobility, albeit limited, to the patients.

Materials and Methods

We present a statistical approach to transform 3-lead Frank VCG to 12-lead ECG signals and vice versa, based on Dower's pioneering work on lead tranformation. This approach enables compensation of baseline shifts and other constant biases present in long ECG data streams, so that the resulting statistical transforms can be more consistent and accurate. We compare the performance of the affine transform with that of Dower transform (from 3 to 12 and from 12 to 3) using the data from the PhysioNet PTB database.

Results

The results show that for both myocardial infarction (MI) and healthy control (HC) subjects, the statistical affine transform presented here maps 3-lead VCG to12-lead ECG more accurately than Dower or other lead transformation matrices of the ECG recordings.

Discussion

This investigation also shows the limitations associated with single dipole assumption that underlies Dower's geometric transformation. The results also indicate that lead transformation accuracy can be improved using separate customized transforms to, for example, age or pathologic conditions (here, MI vs HC) than a single statistical or geometric transform. Pertinently, we find that the affine transform coefficients can serve as discriminating features for classification/discrimination of MI patients from HC subjects.     

Expression of membrane-type matrix metalloproteinases in synovial tissue from patients with rheumatoid arthritis or osteoarthritis

We investigated the expression of membrane-type matrix metalloproteinase (MT-MMP) and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) mRNAs in synovial tissue from patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA, n = 5) or osteoarthritis (OA, n = 5) by Northern blot analysis. Northern analysis demonstrated strong expression of MT1-MMP, MT3-MMP, MMP-1, and MMP-3 and weak expression of MT2-MMP and MMP-8 in synovial tissue from patients with RA or OA. MT4-MMP was not detected. No significant difference was shown in the expression of MT-MMP mRNAs between RA and OA. Synovial tissue of RA or OA patients expressed MT-MMPs as well as MMPs. These results indicate that, in addition to MMPs, MT1-MMP, MT3-MMP, and probably MT2-MMP may play a role in the degradation of bone and cartilage matrix in RA and OA. Such information may provide a clue to the development of a novel therapeutic approach targeted on the prevention of joint destruction. Received: April 30, 2000 / Accepted: September 19, 2000     

Efficacy of combination treatment with cyclosporin A and corticosteroids for acute interstitial pneumonitis associated with dermatomyositis

Interstitial pneumonitis (IP) associated with polymyositis and dermatomyositis (PM/DM) is a serious complication that affects prognosis. We therefore undertook a retrospective multicenter study to examine the efficacy of a combination treatment with cyclosporin A (CsA) and corticosteroids. Fifty-three IP patients with PM/DM (9 PM, 44 DM) were analyzed. Thirty-two patients treated with CsA plus corticosteroids (9 PM, 23 DM) were included in the study. Four parameters, i.e., subjective symptoms, ausculatory sound, chest radiographs, and respiratory index, were serially evaluated. A general evaluation was performed 4 weeks after the start of the combination treatment. All patients with PM and chronic IP with DM, and 52% of those with acute IP with DM were graded as better than partially effective in the general evaluation. In contrast, all patients graded as progressive in the general evaluation had acute IP with DM. It is of note that in acute IP with DM, the survival rate of the group primarily treated with CsA and corticosteroids from the early stage of their disease was significantly higher than that of the group initially treated with corticosteroids alone (P = 0.049). In conclusion, a combination treatment of CsA and corticosteroids from the early stage of disease may be advantageous for patients with IP with PM/DM, especially acute IP with DM.     

Efficacy of combination treatment with cyclosporin A and corticosteroids for acute interstitial pneumonitis associated with dermatomyositis

Abstract

Interstitial pneumonitis (IP) associated with polymyositis and dermatomyositis (PM/DM) is a serious complication that affects prognosis. We therefore undertook a retrospective multicenter study to examine the efficacy of a combination treatment with cyclosporin A (CsA) and corticosteroids. Fifty-three IP patients with PM/DM (9 PM, 44 DM) were analyzed. Thirty-two patients treated with CsA plus corticosteroids (9 PM, 23 DM) were included in the study. Four parameters, i.e., subjective symptoms, ausculatory sound, chest radiographs, and respiratory index, were serially evaluated. A general evaluation was performed 4 weeks after the start of the combination treatment. All patients with PM and chronic IP with DM, and 52% of those with acute IP with DM were graded as better than “partially effective” in the general evaluation. In contrast, all patients graded as “progressive” in the general evaluation had acute IP with DM. It is of note that in acute IP with DM, the survival rate of the group primarily treated with CsA and corticosteroids from the early stage of their disease was significantly higher than that of the group initially treated with corticosteroids alone (P = 0.049). In conclusion, a combination treatment of CsA and corticosteroids from the early stage of disease may be advantageous for patients with IP with PM/DM, especially acute IP with DM.     

Relevance of Endocavitary Structures in Ablation Procedures for Ventricular Tachycardia

Endocavitary Structures and Ventricular Tachycardia Ablation. Background: Radiofrequency (RF) ablation for ventricular tachycardia (VT) has high failure rates. Whether endocavitary structures (ECS) such as the papillary muscles (PMs), moderator bands (MBs), or false tendons (FTs) impact VT ablation is unknown. Methods and Results: We retrospectively reviewed records of 190 consecutive patients presenting for VT ablation and identified 46 (24%) where ECS affected ablation. In 31 of 46 patients (67%), the ECS created difficulty with catheter manipulation (n = 20), interpretation of pace map data (n = 7), or with accurately defining a scar (n = 4). In 15 of 46 (33%), specific mapping and RF energy delivery targeting the ECS itself was necessary to eliminate the arrhythmia. Detailed electroanatomic mapping was performed in 11 of 15 (73%), noncontact mapping in 3 of 15 (20%), multielectrode catheter mapping in 1 of 15 (7%), and intracardiac ultrasound in 14 of 15 (93%) patients. The ablated ECS was a PM in 5 of 15, the MB in 7 of 15, and an FT in 3 of 15. The arrhythmogenic substrate on the ECS was a focus of automatic tachycardia in 9 of 15 and the slow zone responsible for reentrant arrhythmia in the remaining 6 of 15. Successful elimination of tachycardia without recurrence was obtained in all 15 cases. There was no evidence of valvular damage or disruption of the valvular apparatus. Conclusion: During VT ablation procedures, ECS should be considered for specific mapping and targeted ablation. Once recognized, these structures can be successfully targeted for ablation without valve damage. (J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol, Vol. 21, pp. 245–254, March 2010)     

Papillomavirus Infectious Pathways: A Comparison of Systems

The HPV viral lifecycle is tightly linked to the host cell differentiation, causing difficulty in growing virions in culture. A system that bypasses the need for differentiating epithelium has allowed for generation of recombinant particles, such as virus-like particles (VLPs), pseudovirions (PsV), and quasivirions (QV). Much of the research looking at the HPV life cycle, infectivity, and structure has been generated utilizing recombinant particles. While recombinant particles have proven to be invaluable, allowing for a rapid progression of the HPV field, there are some significant differences between recombinant particles and native virions and very few comparative studies using native virions to confirm results are done. This review serves to address the conflicting data in the HPV field regarding native virions and recombinant particles.