Estimation of the right ventricular volume and ejection fraction by transthoracic three-dimensional echocardiography

Aims. To validate the use of three-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography compared with the magnetic resonance imaging for determination of right ventricular volume and ejection fraction. Methods and results: We recorded transthoracic echocardiographic images starting from the apical four-chamber view in which the RV is clearly visualized in 15 healthy volunteers. The scanning plane of the RV was obtained by the rotational scanning technique in 2 degree angular increments for three-dimensional reconstruction. The RV volumes in end-diastole and end-systole were calculated using a Tomtec three-dimensional reconstruction computer. We also assessed the RV by cine magnetic resonance imaging using the Siemens Magnetom Impact Expert (1.0 T). Cine gradient echo images were obtained in the short axis of the RV. The RV volume at each phase was calculated by Simpson's method. We also calculated the RV ejection fraction. The RV volumes in end-diastole and end-systole were 111±22 ml and 52±13 ml, respectively as determined by three-dimensional echo, and 115±18 ml and 55±14 ml determined by MRI. The right ventricular volumes at end-diastole and end-systole determined by three-dimensional echo were correlated with the volumes determined by MRI (r=0.94 and 0.97, respectively, p<0.001). The RV ejection fraction determined by three dimensional echo was also correlated with the ejection fraction determined by MRI (r=0.90, p<0.01). Conclusions. Three-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography provided reliable calculations of the right ventricular volume and ejection fraction.     

Determination of left ventricular mass by real-time three-dimensional echocardiography: in vitro validation

Twenty-one explanted fixed hearts (14 dogs and 7 pigs) were examined to validate newly developed real-time three-dimensional (RT3D) echocardiography for measurement of left ventricular (LV) mass in vitro and to compare its accuracy and variability with those of conventional echocardiographic measurements. There was an excellent correlation and high degree of agreement for the determination of LV mass between RT3D echocardiography and true mass measurement (r = 0.98; standard error of the estimate [SEE] = 7.3 g; absolute difference [AD] = 2.8 g; y = 1.00 x -4.0, interobserver variability; 5.0%). The conventional echocardiographic methods yielded weaker correlations, larger standard errors, and interobserver variability (area-length method: r = 0.90; SEE = 13.3 g; AD = 13.2 g; 13.3 % / truncated ellipsoid method: r = 0.91; SEE = 14.7 g; AD = 10.5 g; 7. 9% / M-mode: r = 0.91; SEE = 16.2 g; AD = 9.4 g; 15.3%). Determination of LV mass by RT3D echocardiography has a high degree of accuracy and is superior to conventional one- and two-dimensional echocardiographic methods.     

Quantitative assessment of left ventricular volume and ejection fraction using two-dimensional speckle tracking echocardiography

Aims: Two-dimensional speckle tracking echocardiography (2DSTE) allowsmeasurements of left ventricular (LV) volumes and LV ejectionfraction (LVEF) without manual tracings. Our goal was to determinethe accuracy of 2DSTE against real-time 3D echocardiography(RT3DE) and against cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging. Methods and results: In Protocol 1, 2DSTE data in the apical four-chamber view (iE33,Philips) and CMR images (Philips 1.5T scanner) were obtainedin 20 patients. The 2DSTE data were analysed using custom software,which automatically performed speckle tracking analysis throughoutthe cardiac cycle. LV volume curves were generated using thesingle-plane Simpson's formula, from which end-diastolic volume(LVEDV), end-systolic volume (LVESV), and LVEF were calculated.In Protocol 2, the 2DSTE and RT3DE data were acquired in 181subjects. RT3DE data sets were acquired, and LV volumes andLVEF were measured using QLab software (Philips). In Protocol1, excellent correlations were noted between the methods forLVEDV (r = 0.95), ESV (r = 0.95), and LVEF (r = 0.88). In Protocol2, LV volume waveforms suitable for analysis were obtained from2DSTE images in all subjects. The time required for analysiswas <2 min per patient. Excellent correlations were notedbetween the methods for LVEDV (r = 0.95), ESV (r = 0.97), andLVEF (r = 0.92). However, 2DSTE significantly underestimatedLVEDV, resulting in a mean of 8% underestimation in LVEF. Intra-and inter-observer variabilities of 2DSTE were 7 and 9% in LVvolume and 6 and 8% in LVEF, respectively. Conclusions: Two-dimensional speckle tracking echocardiography measurementsresulted in a small but significant underestimation of LVEDVand EF compared with RT3DE. However, the accuracy, low intra-and inter-observer variabilities and speed of analysis make2DSTE a potentially useful modality for LV functional assessmentin the routine clinical setting.     

Approaches to determination of left ventricular volume and ejection fraction by real-time two-dimensional echocardiography.

Left ventricular volumes and ejection fraction were derived from real time two-dimensional echocardiographic images (2 DE) and single plane (RAO) left ventricular cineangiograms in a series of 50 patients. Prospective application of a series of 6 alternate algorithms showed that a modified Simpson's rule approach using mitral and papillary muscle cross sections and an apical four chamber view provided the best 2 DE - angiographic correlations: for end-diastolic volume r = 0.82, SEE = 39 ml; for end-systolic volume r = 0.90, SEE = 29 ml and for ejection fraction r = 0.80, SEE = 0.09. The large SEE for volume determination indicates that further refinements are necessary to predict left ventricular volumes adequately; however, ejection fraction can be derived with an accuracy which allows practical clinical decisions in patients with satisfactory 2 DE images.     

In vitro validation of right ventricular volume and mass measurement by real-time three-dimensional echocardiography

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate initially the feasibility and accuracy of real-time three-dimensional echocardiography (RT-3DE) for quantifying right ventricular (RV) volume and wall mass in an in vitro experimental study. METHODS: In ten excised porcine hearts, measurements of RV volume and free wall mass with RT-3DE were outlined and calculated by 2-, 4-, 8- and 16-plane methods with Tom Tec 4D Cardio-View RT 1.0. The results were compared with those of 2D length method and 2D biplane Simpson method. The values of RV silicone latex cast and free wall mass measured by water displacement were served as reference values. RESULTS: RV shapes of excised porcine hearts with RT-3DE were similar to those of the actual anatomic RVs and RV silicone latex casts. From the findings of analysis of variance and Student-Newman-Keuls test, there was no significant difference between measurements of RV volume with RT-3DE 16-plane (mean 64.05 ml), 8-plane (61.83 ml) and the reference values of RV silicone latex casts (62.94 ml). No significant difference was found between measurements of RV free wall mass with 16-plane (72.81 g), 8-plane (71.05 g) and the reference values of RV free wall masses (76.21 g). However, there was significant difference between measurements of RV volume and free wall mass with 2-plane, 2D biplane Simpson method and the reference values. Furthermore, the measurements of RV volume and free wall mass with 16-plane and 8-plane were better correlated with the reference values than those with 4-plane and 2D length method. CONCLUSIONS: RT-3DE will be a valuable technique for quantifying irregular crescentic RV volume and wall mass.     

Left ventricular volumes and ejection fraction by single plane two-dimensional apex echocardiography

Left ventricular end-diastolic and end-systolic volumes andejection fraction were calculated by means of single plane two-dimensionalapex echocardiography (echo) in 34 consecutive patients undergoingleft ventricular cine-angiography (angio). Adequate echocardiographicstudies could be obtained in 30 patients. Of these 10 were normal,10 had valvular heart disease and 10 coronary artery disease.We consistently used the right anterior oblique equivalent viewbecause of its comparability with the cine-angiographic rightanterior oblique projection. Stop frames from the tape-recordedtwo-dimensional echocardiograms were processed with the samecomputer programme already in use for cine-angiographic measurements.Goodcorrelations were found between echo and angio for end-diastolicand end-systolic volume index (r=0.84 and r=0.85, respectively)and for ejection fraction (r = 0.91). Thus two-dimensional apexechocardiography using the right anterior oblique equivalentview offers a simple non-invasive means of calculating leftventricular volumes and ejection fraction     

Lack of agreement between left ventricular volumes and ejection fraction determined by two-dimensional echocardiography and contrast cineangiography in postinfarction patients

OBJECTIVE: To assess the agreement between left ventricular (LV) volumes and ejection fraction (EF) determined by two-dimensional echocardiography (2-D echo) and by cineangiography in postinfarction patients. Design: LV end-diastolic and end-systolic volumes indexed (EDVI and ESVI) to body surface area as well as EF were determined by both methods in all patients. Setting: Multicenter trial conducted in five university hospitals. PATIENTS: 63 patients, 61 male, two female, mean age 55.5 +/- 10.4 years, suffering from a recent myocardial infarction. Eighty-one pairs of measurements were available. METHODS: The results of biplane 2-D echo measures, using apical four-chamber (4C) and two-chamber (2C) views were compared to those of a 30 degrees right anterior oblique cineangiography projection, using either the apical method of discs or the area-length 2-D echo method. Moreover, eyeball EF was estimated at 2-D echo and cineangiography, and was compared to the conventional methods. The agreement between results was assessed by the Bland and Altman method. RESULTS: The agreement between 2-D echo and cineangiography results was poor. Mean differences (MD) were -21.8 (EDVI, ml/m(2)), -9.5 (ESVI, ml/m(2)), and -0.9 (EF, %), respectively for 2-D echo method of discs versus cineangiography, and -23.2, -9.3, and -5.7 for area-length 2-D echo versus cineangiography. For EF (%), MD was -3.6 for eyeball cineangiography versus cineangiography, -1.3 for eyeball 2-D echo versus method of discs, and +0.30 for eyeball 2-D echo versus area-length 2-D echo, respectively. Two-dimensional echo is likely to underestimate LV volumes compared to cineangiography, especially for largest volumes. Even for EF, discrepancies are large, with a lack of agreement of 21%-25% between conventional methods, but agreement is better between eyeball EF and usual methods. CONCLUSIONS: Even with modern echocardiographic devices, agreement between 2-D echo and cineangiography-derived LV volumes and EF remains moderate, and both methods must not be considered interchangeable in clinical practice.     

三维超声评价重度妊娠高血压综合征患者分娩前后左室功能的初步研究

目的探讨实时三维超声（RT-3DE）成像技术定量测定重度妊娠高血压综合征（简称妊高征）患者分娩前后的左室功能（EF）的临床价值。方法选择50例重度妊高征患者（P组）和50例正常妊娠者（N组）,分别采用RT-3DE技术和M型超声（MME）测定分娩前左室功能和分娩后1个月左室功能。结果孕妇分娩前,RT-3DE和MME技术所测P组和N组患者左心功能差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）;MME技术所测妊高征患者左心功能分娩前后差异无统计学意义（P〉0.05）,而RT-3DE技术测定结果显示差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。结论 RT-3DE成像技术,可快捷、准确的测定重度妊高征患者左室功能的变化情况,可应用于临床工作中。     

实时三维超声心动图定量评价心力衰竭患者左心室收缩同步性

目的应用实时三维超声心动图定量评价心力衰竭患者左心室收缩同步性。方法选择诊断为心力衰竭的患者21例作为心力衰竭组,同期另选健康志愿者20例作为正常组。实时三维经胸超声心动图检查,应用Qlab软件计算左心室整体和17节段容积时间曲线变化,参数包括左心室舒张末容积、左心室收缩末容积和LVEF。分别计算左心室16、12和6节段达最低左心室收缩末容积时间(Tmsv)的标准差(Tmsv 16-SD、Tmsv-12 SD、Tmsv 6-SD)、左心室16、12和6节段Tmsv的最大时间差异(Tmsv16-Dif、Tmsv 12-Dif、Tmsv6-Dif)。同时系统将所测的绝对值自动进行标准化,得到左心室1 6、12和6节段最大差异的标准化值(Tmsv16-SD/R-R、Tmsv12 SD/R R、Tmsv6-SD/R-R、Tmsv16-Dif/R-R、Tmsv12-Dif/R-R、Tmsv6-Dif/R-R)。结果与正常组比较,心力衰竭组LVEF明显降低,左心室舒张末容积和左心室收缩末容积明显升高,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);Tmsv16-SD、Tmsv12-SD、Tmsv6-SD,Tmsv16-Dif、Tmsv12-Dif、Tmsv6-Dif,Tmsv16-SD/R-R、Tmsv12-SD/R-R、Tmsv 6-SD/R-R,Tmsv16-Dif/R R、Tmsv12-Dif/R-R、Tmsv6-Dif/R-R参数值均明显升高,差异有统计学意义(P<0.01)。结论实时三维超声心动图的左心室容积时间曲线能全面显示心室容积、室壁运动及功能的动态变化,为心力衰竭患者的诊断、心脏再同步化治疗及预后评估提供更完整的定量信息。     

Mitral annular motion as a surrogate for left ventricular ejection fraction: real-time three-dimensional echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging studies.

AIMS: To validate the accuracy of mitral annular motion assessed by real-time three-dimensional echocardiography (RT3DE) as a surrogate for determination of the left ventricular function in comparison with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). METHODS AND RESULTS: Forty-seven patients with a variety of cardiac pathologies underwent both RT3DE and MRI exams. After 3D data sets were transferred to a PC with a custom-made program, nine consecutive rotational apical plane images (20 degrees apart) were displayed. The two mitral leaflet insertion points were manually identified in each plane. The geometry of the mitral annulus was reconstructed from a total of 18 coordinates (x, y, z), and the changes in mitral annular area and mitral annular motion along the apical long axis were calculated. The left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) determined by MRI was 41+/-18%, and 24 patients had LVEF<50%. Mitral annular motion (y) obtained by RT3DE was 11+/-5 mm and correlated moderately well with LVEF (x) measured by MRI (r=0.84, y=0.25x+0.43, p<0.0001). The mitral annular motion<12 mm was a good threshold for detecting LVEF<50% with 96% sensitivity, 85% specificity, and 91% accuracy. CONCLUSION: Mitral annular motion determined by RT3DE correlated moderately well with LVEF; and systolic motion, <12 mm, accurately detected LV dysfunction.     

Determination of left ventricular ejection fraction by visual estimation during real-time two-dimensional echocardiography

It has been shown that the measured reduction in the cross-sectional area of the left ventricle (LV), as viewed in the short axis, closely approximates its ejection fraction (EF). We assessed the reliability of using two-dimensional echocardiography (2DE) to visually estimate the EF during real-time viewing, without the need of digitizers, planimetry, or calculations. Twenty-five adult hospitalized patients with either suspected or known cardiac disease were evaluated prospectively. Each patient also had gated nuclear angiography during the same admission, and 14 had cardiac catheterization with left ventriculography. The EF was determined by 2DE using a visual estimate of the percent area reduction of the LV cavity in the short-axis view at the level of the papillary muscles. All 2 DE studies were read by two or more blinded reviewers, with a value for the EF to the nearest 2.5% determined by consensus. These values correlated closely to the values determined in all 25 patients with gated nuclear angiography (r = 0.927) and the 14 patients who had left ventriculography (r = 0.935). We believe that this method of visually estimating the LVEF will enable echocardiographers to easily use 2 DE for a reliable and instantaneous assessment of ventricular function, without the need of sophisticated analytical equipment.     

New digital measurement methods for left ventricular volume using real-time three-dimensional echocardiography: comparison with electromagnetic flow method and magnetic resonance imaging.

AIM: The aim of this study was to investigate the feasibility and accuracy of using symmetrically rotated apical long axis planes for the determination of left ventricular (LV) volumes with real-time three-dimensional echocardiography (3DE). METHODS AND RESULTS: Real-time 3DE was performed in six sheep during 24 haemodynamic conditions with electromagnetic flow measurements (EM), and in 29 patients with magnetic resonance imaging measurements (MRI). LV volumes were calculated by Simpson's rule with five 3DE methods (i.e. apical biplane, four-plane, six-plane, nine-plane (in which the angle between each long axis plane was 90 degrees, 45 degrees, 30 degrees or 20 degrees, respectively) and standard short axis views (SAX)). Real-time 3DE correlated well with EM for LV stroke volumes in animals (r=0.68-0.95) and with MRI for absolute volumes in patients (r-values=0.93-0.98). However, agreement between MRI and apical nine-plane, six-plane, and SAX methods in patients was better than those with apical four-plane and bi-plane methods (mean difference = -15, -18, -13, vs. -31 and -48 ml for end-diastolic volume, respectively, P<0.05). CONCLUSION: Apically rotated measurement methods of real-time 3DE correlated well with reference standards for calculating LV volumes. Balancing accuracy and required time for these LV volume measurements, the apical six-plane method is recommended for clinical use.     

Evaluation of myocardial deformation in patients with sickle cell disease and preserved ejection fraction using three-dimensional speckle tracking echocardiography

Background: Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a hemoglobinopathy that affects one in 500 African Americans. Although it is well established that patients with SCD have left ventricular (LV) diastolic dysfunction, it is not clear whether they have subtle LV systolic dysfunction despite preserved ejection fraction (EF). We used three-dimensional speckle tracking echocardiography (3DSTE) to assess changes in both systolic and diastolic LV function in SCD. Methods: Transthoracic real time 3D images were obtained (Philips iE33) in 56 subjects, including 28 stable outpatients with SCD (age 33 ± 7 years) and 28 normal controls (age 35 ± 9 years). 3DSTE was performed using prototype software (4DLV Analysis, TomTec) to obtain LV volume and deformation time curves, from which indices of systolic and diastolic LV function were calculated. Results: In SCD patients, 3DSTE-derived LV filling parameters were significantly different from normal controls, reflecting an increase in both rapid and atrial filling volumes and prolonged active relaxation, depicted by a decrease in filling volume fractions at fixed times and an increase in rapid filling duration. Global LV systolic function was not only preserved but increased compared to controls, as reflected by significantly increased global longitudinal strain. Importantly, twist angle and torsion as well as radial and circumferential components of 3D strain were similar in both groups. Conclusions: 3DSTE was able to confirm diastolic dysfunction, as expected in some patients with SCD. However, 3DSTE strain analysis did not reveal any changes in LV systolic function. These findings provide novel insight into the pathophysiology of the cardiovascular complications of SCD.     

Early left ventricular ejection fraction as a predictor of survival after cardiac arrest

Background: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation and early defibrillation have been shown to improve outcomes of cardiac arrest. The significance of the post-arrest echocardiogram, specifically the left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) is unknown. Methods: We performed a retrospective cohort study of patients who suffered from cardiac arrest between 1 January 2009 and 31 December 2013. We included all patients who achieved return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC), and were admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) or coronary care unit (CCU) of a tertiary care academic center. Patients who underwent echocardiography within 24 h of cardiac arrest were included for analysis. The primary outcome was survival. Results: We identified 151 patients who achieved ROSC of which 97 underwent post-arrest echocardiogram within 24 h. 70.8% were males and the mean age was 67.8 years (SD: 15.9). The mean LVEF at 24 h was 35.7 (SD: 17.8). LVEF > 40% was not a predictor of survival at 30 days or hospital discharge. The only significant predictors on multivariate analyses were age, presence of shockable rhythm and time to ROSC. Conclusion: Although echocardiograms are frequently ordered, LVEF greater than 40% in patients who are resuscitated after a cardiac arrest is not a predictor of survival.     

Serial left ventricular ejection fraction in acute myocardial infarction by cross-sectional echocardiography: correlation of changing ejection fraction with clinical course

Left ventricular volume and ejection fraction were measuredin 22 survivors of acute myocardial infarction by means of two-dimensionalechocardiography and using a Simpson's rule algorithm. Ten ofthe 22 patients experienced complications. For the group as a whole, there were no significant trends inleft ventricular volume and ejection fraction between the firstand third days and the third month after infarction. In thesubgroups with uncomplicated and complicated infarction, therewere trends towards increasing and decreasing ejection fractions,respectively, which Jailed to attain statistical significance,however. The difference in ejection fraction between both subgroupshad become significant at 3 months; 55.2+11.1% in uncomplicatedv. 41.3±6.9% in complicated cases (P>0.0l). Individualchanges in ejection fraction falling outside the limits of reproducibilityof the method as assessed previously were observed between day1 and day 3 in only 2 patients with uncomplicated and in 2 patientswith complicated infarction. Between day 1 and 3 months suchchanges occurred in 8 patients with uncomplicated infarction(upward in 5 and downward in 3), and in 8 patients with complicatedinfarcts (upward in 3 and downward in 5) We conclude that changes in ejection fraction as measured bytwo-dimensional echocardiography lend to correlate with complications.     

Left ventricular volume measurement with echocardiography: a comparison of left ventricular opacification, three-dimensional echocardiography, or both with magnetic resonance imaging

Aims: Both contrast enhanced (CE) two-dimensional echocardiography(2DE) and three-dimensional echocardiography (3DE) have beenproposed as techniques to improve the accuracy of left ventricular(LV) volume measurements. We sought to examine the accuracyof non-contrast (NC) and CE-2DE and 3DE for calculation of LVvolumes and ejection fraction (EF), relative to cardiac magneticresonance imaging (MRI). Methods and results: We studied 50 patients (46 men, age 63 ± 10 year) withpast myocardial infarction who underwent echocardiographic assessmentof LV volume and function. All patients sequentially underwentNC-2DE followed by NC-3DE. CE-2DE and CE-3DE were acquired duringcontrast infusion. Resting echocardiographic image quality wasevaluated on the basis of NC-2DE. The mean LV end-diastolicvolume (LVEDV) of the group by MRI was 207 ± 79 mL andwas underestimated by 2DE (125 ± 54 mL, P = 0.005), andless by CE-2DE (172 ± 58 mL, P = 0.02) or 3DE (177 ±64 mL, P = 0.08), but EDV was comparable by CE-3DE (196 ±69 mL, P = 0.16). Limits of agreement with MRI were similarfor NC-3DE and CE-2DE, with the best results for CE-3D. Resultswere similar for calculation of LVESV. Patients were categorizedinto groups of EF (35, 35–50, >50%) by MRI. NC-2DEdemonstrated a 68% agreement (kappa 0.45, P = 0.001), CE-2DEa 62% agreement (kappa 0.20, P = 136), NC-3DE a 74% agreement(kappa 0.39, P = 0.005) and CE-3DE an 80% agreement (kappa 0.56,P < 0.001). Conclusion: CE-2DE is analogous to NC-3DE in accurate categorization ofLV function. However, CE-3DE is feasible and superior to otherNC- and CE-techniques in patients with previous infarction.     

实时三维超声心动图评价右室不同部位起搏对左室收缩同步性和心功能的影响

目的运用实时三维超声心动图及其定量技术分析右室不同部位起搏12月后左心室收缩同步性和功能的变化。方法25例安装永久起搏器的患者分成2组：右室流出道（RVOT）组12例,平均年龄（61．5±8．9）岁;右室心尖部（RVA）组13例,平均年龄（62．8±5．9）岁。分别于术后第1天和12个月使用二维M型超声心动图测左房内径（LAD）,实时三维经胸超声心动图检查,应用Qlab定量分析软件得到左室整体容积曲线、17节段容积啦线、舒张末容积（EDV）、收缩末容积（ESV）和左室射血分数（LVEF）,17节段的平均最大容积（Vmax）及其标准差（Vmax-sD）、平均最小容积（Vmin）及其标准差（Vmin-sD）、最小容积点距离心电图Q波起始点的平均时间（T）及其标准差（T—SD）、17个节段中的最小容积点距离心电图Q波起始点的最大时间差（Tmax）,测得NT—proBNP和QRS。结果基线状态各指标差异均无统计学意义（均P〉0．05）。随访12个月,RVOT组与RVA组比较,LVEF明显增大,ESV明显缩小,Vmin-SD、Vmax-SD明显减小,T—SD、Tmax缩短（P〈0．05）,NTproBNP明显升高（P〈0．05）,QRS差异无统计学意义（P〉0．05）,房颤发生率明显减少（P〈0．05）。RVA组起搏器置入12个月较第1天时Vmax-SD、T—Vmin-SD、T—SD、ESV、NTproBNP明显增大,LVEF明显降低（P〈0．05）;而RVOT组无明显变化。RVOT组较基础态QRS增宽,但与RVA组无明显区别（P〉0．05）。结论实时三维超声心动图能够评价左室心肌收缩同步性和左心收缩功能,右室流出道起搏较右室心尖部起搏左室收缩的同步性好,左室收缩功能的影响小,是-种较为理想的起搏部位。     

Regional left ventricular ejection fraction from real-time two-dimensional echocardiography

We studied regional left ventricular contraction patterns and ejection fraction from real-time two-dimensional echocardiograms in 8 normal subjects, 11 patients with coronary artery disease and 2 with congestive cardiomyopathy. The ventricle was divided into 12 regions and for each region, we calculated ejection fraction using a method which integrated the incremental volumes of a series of hemicylinders constructed within that region. The data obtained were displayed graphically to provide a detailed picture of regional ventricular function. Normal subjects had a uniform regional ventricular pattern (regional ejection fraction 54–74%). In patients with coronary disease, we found varying degrees of regional ventricular contraction abnormalities. In congestive cardiomyopathy global hypokinesis was present, and regional ejection fraction was reduced in all areas (11–39%). The study showed that two-dimensional echocardiography is a useful non-invasive bedside technique which may provide detailed quantitative information relating to regional left ventricular contraction abnormalities.