Mutations to A/Puerto Rico/8/34 PB1 gene improves seasonal reassortant influenza A virus growth kinetics

It is desirable for influenza vaccine virus strains to have phenotypes that include good growth and hemagglutinin (HA) protein yield. The quality of these characteristics varies among the vaccine viruses and is usually due to multigenic effects. Many influenza A virus vaccine viruses are made as reassortants of the high yield virus A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (PR/8) and a circulating seasonal virus. Co-infection of eggs with the two viruses, and selection of reassortants with the HA and neuraminidase (NA) segments from the seasonal virus, can result in viruses that contain a mixture of internal genes derived from both the high yield virus and the circulating virus. Segment 2 (PB1), which encodes the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, frequently cosegregates with the seasonal HA and NA segments. We asked whether mutations based on the seasonal PB1 genes could improve vaccine virus strains. Here we report that mutations to the PR/8 PB1 gene, based on differences observed between seasonal and PR/8 PB1 genes, accelerate egg and cell culture based replication for a reassortant virus containing HA and NA segments from the low yield A/Wyoming/03/2003 (H3N2) vaccine virus.     

Improvement of H5N1 influenza vaccine viruses: influence of internal gene segments of avian and human origin on production and hemagglutinin content

The H5N1-clade 1 influenza vaccine strain NIBRG-14 produces exceptionally low amounts of antigen, a problem recently encountered also for initial pandemic H1N1-2009 vaccine seeds. Here, we report on a strategy that may contribute to overcome this obstacle. Influenza vaccine viruses usually consist of two segments coding for the antigenic HA and NA proteins of a wild-type strain and the six residual internal gene segments of the vaccine donor strain A/PR/8/34 (PR8). To enhance the antigen yield from H5N1 vaccine virus we generated by reverse genetics a set of PR8-based reassortant viruses expressing the HA and NA segments of the prototypic strain A/Vietnam/1203/2004 and additional replacements of the internal M or PB1 genes of PR8. The reassortants were compared to the parental PR8 and H5N1 viruses in terms of growth in embryonated chicken eggs and the amount of incorporated antigenic HA protein. Compared to NIBRG-14, three out of six viruses displayed an increased replication in embryonated chicken eggs and higher HA content that was also maintained after ether/detergent extraction of virions. Electron microscopic analysis showed that the reassortment hardly affected particle shape and size. Two selected H5N1 reassortant viruses were investigated concerning their pathogenicity in ferrets and found to behave as low pathogenic as the PR8 donor strain. In conclusion, this study shows that replication and antigen content of PR8-derived H5N1 influenza vaccine viruses can be improved by incorporation of heterologous internal gene segments without compromising their attenuated character.     

Genetic and phenotypic analysis of reassortants of high growth and low growth strains of influenza B virus

The yield of influenza virus in eggs is critical to influenza vaccine production and availability, but the contribution of specific genes to the growth properties of influenza B viruses is not well understood. Influenza B/Beijing/184/93 and B/Shangdong/7/97 were chosen for study because B/Shangdong/7/97 replicated to several fold higher titers in eggs than B/Beijing/184/93 as demonstrated by hemagglutination titers and EID50. A reassortant with the HA, NP and PB2 genes from B/Beijing/184/93 and all other genes from B/Shangdong/7/97 had the high growth phenotype of B/Shangdong/7/97 in eggs, which suggests that NS, M, NA, PB1 or PA, or a combination of these genes derived from B/Shangdong/7/97 were needed for the high growth phenotype of the reassortants. A high degree of homology was found among the genetic sequences of B/Beijing/184/93, B/Shangdong/7/97, and other influenza B viruses. However, differences potentially related to growth characteristics were suggested by analysis of the deduced amino acid (AA) sequences of four genes: NS (NS1, NS2), M (BM2), NA (NA, NB) and PB1. The studies identify multiple genes that may affect growth of influenza B viruses in eggs.     

甲型H1N1流感病毒基因组序列分析及其特性研究

目的 分析甲型H1N1流感病毒的基因组序列特征,阐明该毒株的遗传变异及分子特性.方法 GenBank中获取流感病毒全序列,对各段基因与已知序列进行分析比较,绘制进化树,并分析和预测甲型毒株的致病性、药物敏感性和现有疫苗的预防保护作用.结果 甲型H1N1病毒的HA、PB2、PB1、PA、NP、NS基因与美国本土的猪流感病毒序列具有高度同源性,NA和M基因具有典型的欧亚株系猪流感病毒特征.该病毒具有人传人的分子基础,HA上HA1和HA2裂解位点序列为PSIQSR↓+GLFGAI,尚不具备高致病性流感病毒的特征.病毒对金刚烷胺类药物耐药,而对达菲和扎那米韦敏感.HA片段5个抗原决定区氨基酸序列与人用流感疫苗具有较大差异,推测现有疫苗对预防本次疫情基本无效.结论 甲型H1N1是一种北美和欧亚两种猪流感病毒的混合体,开发针对本病毒的流感疫苗有助于进一步控制疫情蔓延.     

HA1 (Hemagglutinin) quantitation for influenza A H1N1 and H3N2 high yield reassortant vaccine candidate seed viruses by RP-UPLC

The only effective measure to decrease morbidity and mortality caused by the influenza virus in the human population is worldwide vaccination. Vaccination produces neutralizing antibodies that target the HA1 subunit of the HA (hemagglutinin) protein and are strain specific. The effectiveness of new influenza vaccines are linked to two factors, the correct prediction of the circulating strains in the population in a particular season and the concentration of the HA1 protein in the vaccine formulation. With the advent of the licensing of quadrivalent vaccines, pharmaceutical manufacturers are under considerable pressure due to time constraints and dedicated resources to deliver 194–198 million doses (2020–2021 U.S. market) of vaccine. Considering the valuable resources needed to produce the influenza vaccine in a timely manner, the efficient quantitation of the HA1 protein (the main component in the influenza vaccine) is required. Currently the only method approved by regulatory agencies for quantitation of the HA antigen in vaccines is the single radial immunodiffusion assay (SRID), an antibody dependent assay that is not time efficient. Time efficient methods that are antibody independent e.g. reverse phase-high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) or size exclusion-HPLC (SE-HPLC) are available. An improved method implementing reverse phase-ultra performance liquid chromatography (RP-UPLC) has been developed to quantitate the HA1 protein antigen present in the high yield reassortant vaccine seed viruses from influenza A H1N1 and H3N2 subtypes harvested from inoculated embryonated chicken eggs. This method differentiates between high yield and lower yielding reassortants in order to select the best vaccine candidate seed virus with the highest growth ‘in ovo’. This direct capability to monitor the HA1 concentration of potential reassortant seed viruses and to choose the best yielding HA influenza reassortant when faced with multiple viral seed candidates provides a major advantage on the industrial scale to the influenza vaccine process.     

Characterization of the attenuating M and NP gene segments of the avian influenza A/Mallard/78 virus during in vitro production of avian-human reassortant vaccine viruses and after replication in humans and primates

A unique requirement for live attenuated reassortant influenza vaccines is the need to generate new reassortant vaccine viruses with the appearance of each new antigenic variant. Thus, the attenuation phenotype conferred by the attenuated donor influenza virus must remain genetically stable during the generation of each new reassortant vaccine virus. In this study we used nucleotide sequence analysis to evaluate the genetic stability of the attenuating M and NP genes of the avian influenza A/Mallard/NY/6750/78 attenuated donor virus during the in vitro generation and subsequent in vivo replication of avian-human (AH) influenza A reassortant vaccine viruses in monkeys and humans. Nucleotide sequence changes in the M and NP genes occurred at a rate of approximately 0.61 substitutions/1000 nt/reassortant during in vitro generation of four AH reassortant viruses. Only two nucleotide sequence changes occurred in the M and NP gene segments of four isolates of H1N1 or H3N2 AH vaccine viruses following 6-8 days of replication in seronegative children, and neither change affected amino acids previously identified as playing a potential role in attenuation. In addition, there were no changes in the nucleotide sequence of the M and NP genes of single gene AH reassortant viruses following five serial passages in squirrel monkeys. Finally, there was no change in the level or duration of replication of the single gene reassortant viruses in the upper or lower respiratory tract of monkeys following serial passage.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Predominance of influenza virus A(H3N2) 3C.2a1b and A(H1N1)pdm09 6B.1A5A genetic subclades in the WHO European Region, 2018–2019

BackgroundThe 2018/2019 influenza season in the WHO European Region was dominated by influenza A (H1N1)pdm09 and (H3N2) viruses, with very few influenza B viruses detected.MethodsCountries in the European Region reported virus characterization data to The European Surveillance System for weeks 40/2018 to 20/2019. These virus antigenic and genetic characterization and haemagglutinin (HA) sequence data were analysed to describe and assess circulating viruses relative to the 2018/2019 vaccine virus components for the northern hemisphere.ResultsThirty countries reported 4776 viruses characterized genetically and 3311 viruses antigenically. All genetically characterized A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses fell in subclade 6B.1A, of which 90% carried the amino acid substitution S183P in the HA gene. Antigenic data indicated that circulating A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses were similar to the 2018/2019 vaccine virus. Genetic data showed that A(H3N2) viruses mostly fell in clade 3C.2a (75%) and 90% of which were subclade 3C.2a1b. A lower proportion fell in clade 3C.3a (23%) and were antigenically distinct from the vaccine virus. All B/Victoria viruses belonged to clade 1A; 30% carried a double amino acid deletion in HA and were genetically and antigenically similar to the vaccine virus component, while 55% carried a triple amino acid deletion or no deletion in HA; these were antigenically distinct from each other and from the vaccine component. All B/Yamagata viruses belonged to clade 3 and were antigenically similar to the virus component in the quadrivalent vaccine for 2018/2019.ConclusionsA simultaneous circulation of genetically and antigenically diverse A(H3N2) and B/Victoria viruses was observed and represented a challenge to vaccine strain selection.     

Optimization of influenza A vaccine virus by reverse genetic using chimeric HA and NA genes with an extended PR8 backbone

The yield of influenza antigen production may significantly vary between vaccine strains; for example the A/California/07/09 (H1N1)-X179A vaccine virus, prepared during 2009 influenza pandemic, presented a low antigen yield in eggs compared to other seasonal H1N1 reassortants. In this study a bi-chimeric virus expressing HA and NA genes with A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (H1N1) (PR8) and X179A domains was rescued by reverse genetics using a mixture of Vero/CHOK1 cell lines (Medina et al. [7]). The bi-chimeric virus obtained demonstrated to yield much larger amounts of HA than X179A in eggs as measured by single-radial-immunodiffusion (SRID), the reference method to quantify HA protein in influenza vaccine. Such kind of optimized virus using PR8 backbone derived chimeric glycoproteins could be used as improved seed viruses for vaccine production.     

浙江省1999--2010年乙型流感病毒血凝素 和神经氨酸酶基因变化特征分析

目的 分析1999-2010年浙江省乙型流感病毒主要抗原基因血凝素(HA)和神经氨酸酶(NA)的分子变异特征.方法 采集浙江省流感暴发疫情和哨点监测医院的流感样患者呼吸道标本,荧光定量RT-PCR快速检测和病毒分离,选取乙型流感病毒分离代表株进行HA和NA基因测序,采用生物信息学软件分析变异和进化.结果 共分析浙江省乙型流感病毒分离株34株,其中Victoria系20株,Yamagata系14株;1999-2010年间Victoria系毒株的HA1基因变异率4.5%,Yamagata系毒株为3.4%;2004年后分离的Victoria系毒株均为基因重配株,HA属于Victoria 系,而NA属于Yamagata系;2010年新型甲型HINI流感流行高峰过后,浙江省仍以乙型流感病毒流行为主,分离株与2009-2010年流感疫苗株B/Brisbane/60/2008接近,与往年乙型流感毒株相比HA和NA发生多个氨基酸位点变异.结论 1999-2010年浙江省乙型流感病毒流行株发生明显变异,基因重配和抗原漂移是病毒发生变异的主要机制.

Abstract：

Objective To Characterize the genetic diversity of hemagglutinin(HA)and neuraminidase(NA)of influenza B viruses isolated in Zhejiang province during 1999-2010.Methods Respiratory specimens were collected from patients with flu-like syndrome during the influenza outbreaks or from the hospitals which carrying out influenza surveillance project in Zhejiang province.Samples were detected by real-time RT-PCR and isolated for influenza virus.HA1 and NA genes of influenza B virus isolates were amplified and sequenced.Phylogenetic comparison and genetic diversity analysis were performed using the bioinformation software.Results A total of 34 influenza B viruses were evolved in this study including Victoria-like and Yamagata-like strains according to the results of the HI test.The mutation rate of Victoria-like HA1 gene was 4.5% and Yamagata-like HA1 gene was 3.4%,respectively.The Victoria-like influenza B isolates had appeared to be all re-assortants having a Victoria lincage HA and Yamagata lineage NA since 2004.The predominant type of influenza virus isolates in 2010 was also influenza B virus after the H1N1 flu pandemic in Zhejiang province.The isolated strains were antigenicaily and genetically similar to B/Brisbane/60/2008--the vaccine strain proposed for 2009-2010.Many difierences of HA1 and NA amino acids existed in the current isolates when compared to previous influenza B strains.Conclusion Significant diversity was generated among influcnza B virus isolated from 1999 to 2010 in Zhejiang province.Genetic re-assortment and antigenic drift seemed the main evolutionary mechanism on influenza B virus.     

Development and characterization of a live attenuated influenza B virus vaccine candidate

A human influenza B/Lee/40 virus was cold-adapted by serial passages in embryonated chicken eggs, at progressively lower temperatures, for possible use as a future influenza B vaccine donor strain. Temperature sensitive and cold-adapted phenotypes were achieved as a consequence of the adaptation process. It was determined that the virus was attenuated in mice since the replication of the viral genome was significantly reduced in the lung. Despite decreased viral replication, the attenuated infection effectively induced a virus-specific immune response. We next developed a reassortant virus carrying two major surface proteins, hemagglutinin and neuraminidase from virulent B/Shangdong/7/97 and six internal genes from the cold-adapted B/Lee/40. The reassortant virus was also attenuated and protected mice from lethal challenge with wild type B/Shangdong/7/97. In addition, vaccination with the reassortant virus resulted in a specific antibody response and inhibited the replication of wild type virus in mice. We conclude that the cold-adapted B/Lee/40 donor strain merits further investigation as potential live vaccine carrier as an alternative means for protection from influenza B virus epidemics.     

2012-2019年新乡市B型流感病毒基因的变异及流行趋势

目的  研究新乡市B型流感病毒的流行状况和基因变异特征,为当地流感疫苗接种提供政策依据。 方法  对新乡市2012年1月-2019年2月流感监测结果进行分析,随机抽取分离的23株B型流感病毒,进行血凝素（hemagglutinin,HA）和神经氨酸酶（neuraminidase,NA）基因测序,使用DNAman软件进行序列比对,Neighbor-Joining法进行进化树分析。 结果  新乡市B型流感病毒Yamagata系（influenza B virus,Yamagata strain,BY）和Victoria系（influenza B virus,Victoria strain,BV）隔年交替流行,主要感染0~15岁人群（91.4%）;2015-2016年和2017-2018年的优势株与当年的三价疫苗成分不符。HA基因进化树显示,87.5%（7/8）的BV株与疫苗株同处一个分支;而88.98%（8/9）的2013-2015年BY株与同期疫苗株不在一个分支,其抗原表位的突变位点有N116K、S150L、N165Y、D196N和N202S。NA基因未发现耐药位点突变。有6个分离株发生了系间重配。 结论  WHO推荐的三价疫苗株很多情况下与新乡B型流行株不符,推荐使用四价疫苗,并加强对15岁以下人群的接种;新乡BY流行株与疫苗株的HA基因差异较大,期待研发出适合我国本土的疫苗株。     

Assessment of viral replication in eggs and HA protein yield of pre-pandemic H5N1 candidate vaccine viruses

H5N1 infection and the potential for spread from human to human continue to pose a severe public health concern. Since vaccination remains the most effective way to prevent a potential H5N1 pandemic, the World Health Organization (WHO) Collaborating Centers (CCs) and Essential Regulatory Laboratories (ERLs) engineered and developed a panel of H5N1 pre-pandemic vaccine viruses for pandemic vaccine preparedness as well as production of antigen potency testing reagents (reference antigen and reference anti-serum) for vaccine standardization. To develop a strategy utilizing a number of biochemical methods for the characterization of the viral growth properties and protein yield in eggs, we have selected eight H5N1 pre-pandemic viruses and determined the viral Egg Infectious Dose 50 (EID₅₀), total protein yield, hemagglutinin (HA) to nucleoprotein (NP) ratios (HA:NP), and HA1 content of each virus. Our results showed that all the tested H5N1 vaccine viruses grew to high titers in eggs. The total viral protein yield varies within a narrow range, whereas there were greater differences in the HA:NP protein ratios among the eight viruses. The RP-HPLC based HA1 content analysis demonstrated that the viruses A/Anhui/1/2010, A/Hubei/1/2005, and A/goose/Guiyang/337/2006 contained higher HA contents than other five viruses including A/Vietnam/1203/2003. Our approach for analyzing virus growth and protein yield will allow us identify optimal vaccine virus in a timely manner. In addition, we successfully purified the HA proteins of H5N1 vaccine viruses by optimizing bromelain cleavage conditions. Our studies on the HA protein purification may improve the quality control of the production of influenza vaccine test reagent.     

2014 - 2015年盐城地区乙型流感病毒Yamagata系HA1基因变异分析

目的 研究盐城市2014 - 2015年流感监测中分离的乙型Yamagata系流感病毒血凝素HA1区的基因特性,揭示HA1基因的变异与流行的关系。方法 将盐城市2014 - 2015年流感监测哨点医院以及流感暴发点采集的流感样病例标本进行核酸、病毒分离检测,选取2014-2015年各5株乙型Yamagata系毒株,采用一步法RT-PCR方法扩增HA1基因,扩增产物经纯化测序,采用相应的生物信息软件进行核苷酸、氨基酸序列比对及基因种系进化特征分析。结果 抽取的10株乙型流感病毒的HA1基因与WHO 推荐的疫苗株B/Wisconsin/1/2010相比,3个位点氨基酸替换具有普遍性,其中N116K位于抗原决定簇;与B/Massachusetts/2/2012相比,11个位点氨基酸替换具有普遍性,4个位点位于抗原决定簇。绘制的种系发生树显示,B/JSYC/1530/2014与B/Massachusetts/2/2012亲缘关系较近,其他9株与B/Wisconsin/1/2010 亲缘关系较近。 结论 2014 - 2015年盐城地区流行的乙型Yamagata系流感病毒的HA1基因特性正逐渐发生变异,这些变异位点的积累很可能会导致流感病毒发生实质性的抗原性的漂移,加强流感病原学监测工作对及时发现新的流感病毒变异株有重要意义。     

Cold adaptation generates mutations associated with the growth of influenza B vaccine viruses

Seasonal inactivated influenza vaccines are usually trivalent or quadrivalent and are prepared from accredited seed viruses. Yields of influenza A seed viruses can be enhanced by gene reassortment with high-yielding donor strains, but similar approaches for influenza B seed viruses have been largely unsuccessful. For vaccine manufacture influenza B seed viruses are usually adapted for high-growth by serial passage. Influenza B antigen yields so obtained are often unpredictable and selection of influenza B seed viruses by this method can be a rate-limiting step in seasonal influenza vaccine manufacture. We recently have shown that selection of stable cold-adapted mutants from seasonal epidemic influenza B viruses is associated with improved growth. In this study, specific mutations were identified that were responsible for growth enhancement as a consequence of adaptation to growth at lower temperatures. Molecular analysis revealed that the following mutations in the HA, NP and NA genes are required for enhanced viral growth: G156/N160 in the HA, E253, G375 in the NP and T146 in the NA genes. These results demonstrate that the growth of seasonal influenza B viruses can be optimized or improved significantly by specific gene modifications.     

2015-2017年盐城市乙型流感病毒HA1、NA基因分子特征

  目的   对盐城市2015-2017年流行的乙型流感病毒血凝素(hemagglutinin, HA)和神经氨酸酶(neuraminidase, NA)基因进行分子进化特征研究。   方法   将盐城市2015-2017年流感监测哨点医院以及流感暴发点采集的流感样病例咽拭子标本进行核酸、病毒分离检测定型, 对选取的18株乙型流感病毒分离株采用一步法RT-PCR方法扩增其HA1基因和NA基因, 扩增产物经纯化测序, 采用生物信息软件从核苷酸、氨基酸以及分子进化层面对毒株进行分子特征分析。   结果   盐城市2015-2017年分离的乙型流感病毒HA1基因和NA基因聚类的分支关系基本一致, 2015年Yamagata系毒株位于Yamagata Clade 3分支, 属Phuket/3073类毒株; 2016-2017年Victoria系毒株分布于Victoria Clade 1A分支, 属Brisbane/60类毒株。Yamagata系所有毒株在190-helix抗原表位均发生了D196N位点的变异; Victoria系毒株共涉及2个抗原表位, 120-loop抗原表位的117、129位点, 190-helix抗原表位的197、199位点。盐城株未发生系内、系间重配。18株分离株未发生NA蛋白酶活性位点以及耐药位点的变化。   结论   2015年Yamagata系毒株与疫苗株B/Phuket/3073/2013匹配性较好。2016-2017年Victoria系毒株HA1和NA抗原基因变异位点在积累, 这些变异位点的积累很可能会导致流感病毒发生实质性的抗原性的漂移, 降低与流感疫苗株的匹配度, 减弱流感疫苗的保护作用。     

Generation of an attenuated H5N1 avian influenza virus vaccine with all eight genes from avian viruses

In the face of disease outbreaks in poultry and the potential pandemic threat to humans caused by the highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) of H5N1 subtype, improvement in biosecurity and the use of inactivated vaccines are two main options for the control of this disease. Vaccine candidates of influenza A viruses of H5N1 subtype have been generated in several laboratories by plasmid-based reverse genetics with hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes from the epidemic strains of avian viruses in a background of internal genes from the vaccine donor strain of human strains, A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (PR8). These reassortant viruses containing genes from both avian and human viruses might impose biosafety concerns, also may be do if C4/F AIV would be a live attenuated vaccine or cold-adaptive strain vaccine. In order to generate better and safer vaccine candidate viruses, we genetically constructed attenuated reassortant H5N1 influenza A virus, designated as C4/F AIV, by plasmid-based reverse genetics with all eight genes from the avian strains. The C4/F AIV virus contained HA and NA genes from an epidemic strain A/Chicken/Huadong/04 (H5N1) (C4/H5N1) in a background of internal genes derived from a low pathogenic strain of A/Chicken/F/98(H9N2). The reassortant virus was attenuated by removal of the multibasic amino acid motif in the HA gene by mutation and deletion (from PQRERRRKKR (downward arrow) G to PQIETR (downward arrow) G). The intravenous pathogenicity index (IVPI) of C4/F AIV virus was 0, whereas that of the donor virus C4/H5N1 was 3.0. The virus HA titer of C4/H5N1 in the allantoic fluid from infected embryonated eggs was as high as 1:2048. The inactivated vaccine prepared from the reassortant virus C4/F AIV-induced high HI titer in vaccinated chickens and gave 100% protection when challenged with highly pathogenic avian influenza virus of H5N1 subtype.     

Eight-plasmid system for rapid generation of influenza virus vaccines

The antigenic variation of influenza A virus hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) glycoproteins requires frequent changes in vaccine formulation. The classical method of creating influenza virus seed strains for vaccine production is to generate 6 + 2 reassortants that contain six genes from a high-yield virus, such as A/PR/8/34 (H1N1) and the HA and NA genes of the circulating strains. The techniques currently used are time-consuming because of the selection process required to isolate the reassortant virus. We generated the high-yield virus A/PR/8/34 (H1N1) entirely from eight plasmids. Its growth phenotype in embryonated chicken eggs was equivalent to that of the wild-type virus. By using this DNA-based cotransfection technique, we generated 6 + 2 reassortants that had the antigenic determinants of the influenza virus strains A/New Caledonia/20/99 (H1N1), A/Panama/2007/99 (H3N2), A/teal/HK/W312 (H6N1), and A/quail/HK/G1/97 (H9N2). Our findings demonstrate that the eight-plasmid system allows the rapid and reproducible generation of reassortant influenza A viruses for use in the manufacture of vaccines.     

Cold adaptation improves the growth of seasonal influenza B vaccine viruses

Gene reassortment has proved useful in improving yields of influenza A antigens of egg-based inactivated vaccines, but similar approaches have been difficult with influenza B antigens. Current regulations for influenza vaccine seed viruses limit the number of egg passages and as a result resultant yields from influenza B vaccine seed viruses are frequently inconsistent. Therefore, reliable approaches to enhance yields of influenza B vaccine seed viruses are required for efficient vaccine manufacture. In the present study three stable cold-adapted (ca) mutants, caF, caM and caB derived from seasonal epidemic strains, B/Florida/4/2006, B/Malaysia/2506/2004 and B/Brisbane/60/2008 were prepared, which produced high hemagglutinin antigen yields and also increased viral yields of reassortants possessing the desired 6:2 gene constellation. The results demonstrate that consistent improvements in yields of influenza B viruses can be obtained by cold adaptation following extended passage. Taken together, the three ca viruses were shown to have potential as donor viruses for the preparation of high-yielding influenza B vaccine viruses by reassortment.     

Increased hemagglutinin content in a reassortant 2009 pandemic H1N1 influenza virus with chimeric neuraminidase containing donor A/Puerto Rico/8/34 virus transmembrane and stalk domains

The glycoproteins, heamagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) of influenza virus confer host protective immune responses during vaccination, which is the most effective approach for preventing influenza-associated morbidity and mortality. Since the functional balance between the HA and NA proteins may affect viral receptor binding and replication, a pandemic influenza A virus (H1N1 pdm09), strain A/Texas/05/2009, was optimized to elevate its HA antigen content by modifying the NA gene. In this study, we have constructed two 2:6 reassortant viruses between pdmH1N1 (A/Texas/05/2009) and A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (PR8), in which the NA gene of A/Texas/05/2009 was modified to contain part of the NA gene from PR8. One chimeric NA virus has the PR8 transmembrane (TM) region (HNtm 2:6) and the other contains both the PR8 NA TM and stem regions (HNst 2:6). Using quantitative reverse phase-HPLC (RP-HPLC) analysis, we observed that the HNst2:6 virus contains a higher HA1 content than HN2:6 wild type. In addition, this mutant virus displays a higher HA1 to nucleoprotein (NP) ratio, based on gel electrophoresis densitometry analysis. Furthermore, the neuraminidase activity of purified HNst 2:6 virus is approximately 30% lower than that of HN2:6 virus, which is suggestive of a lower incorporation of NA into the viral envelope. Therefore, we propose that the reduction of NA packaging in the virion may lead to a compensatory increase of HA. Such an improvement in HA yield is possibly beneficial to H1N1 pdm09 vaccine production.     

Significant circulation of influenza B viruses mismatching the recommended vaccine-lineage in South Korea, 2007–2014

We aimed to characterize the lineages of influenza B viruses obtained from clinical specimens during the 2007–2014 seasons in South Korea. RT-PCR for the partial hemagglutinin gene of influenza B virus was performed on laboratory-confirmed influenza B samples from the 2007–2008 season to 2013–2014 season. A phylogenetic tree was generated, and current influenza vaccine strains for the Northern Hemisphere were used as representative strains of Victoria and Yamagata lineages.A total of 571 influenza B virus sequences were analyzed. During the 2009–2010 season, most of the circulating influenza B viruses matched the vaccine strain; 91.0% (91/100) of viruses belonged to the Victoria lineage. In the 2007–2008, 2011–2012, and 2013–2014 seasons, co-circulation of each influenza B lineage was found with a match ratio to the vaccine strain of 53.2% (42/79), 40.9% (63/154), and 58.3% (134/230), respectively. Overall, 41.7% (238/571) of the circulating influenza B viruses belonged to the lineage mismatching the vaccine strain.During the seven influenza seasons, influenza B epidemics were substantial in four seasons in South Korea. Significant mismatches of the vaccine and lineage of the circulating influenza B viruses were found. The current trivalent influenza vaccine may not be fully suitable for effective protection against influenza B.