Effect of bladder distension on dose distribution of intracavitary brachytherapy for cervical cancer: three-dimensional computed tomography plan evaluation

PURPOSE: To quantify the effect of bladder volume on the dose distribution during intracavitary brachytherapy for cervical cancer. METHODS AND PATIENTS: The study was performed on 10 women with cervical cancer who underwent brachytherapy treatment. After insertion of the brachytherapy applicator, the patients were transferred to the computed tomography unit. Two sets of computed tomography slices were taken, including the pelvis, one with an empty bladder and one after the bladder was filled with saline. The target and critical organs were delineated by the radiation oncologist and checked by the expert radiologist. The radiotherapy plan was run on the Plato planning system, version 14.1, to determine the dose distributions, dose-volume histograms, and maximal dose points. The doses and organ volumes were compared with the Wilcoxon signed ranks test on a personal computer using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences, version 11.0, statistical program. RESULTS: No significant difference regarding the dose distribution and target volumes between an empty or full bladder was observed. Bladder fullness significantly affected the dose to the small intestine, rectum, and bladder. The median of maximal doses to the small intestine was significantly greater with an empty bladder (493 vs. 284 cGy). Although dosimetry revealed lower doses for larger volumes of bladder, the median maximal dose to the bladder was significantly greater with a full bladder (993 vs. 925 cGy). The rectal doses were also affected by bladder distension. The median maximal dose was significantly lower in the distended bladder (481vs. 628 cGy). CONCLUSIONS: Bladder fullness changed the dose distributions to the bladder, rectum, and small intestine. The clinical importance of these changes is not known and an increase in the use of three-dimensional brachytherapy planning will highlight the answer to this question.     

Shielding effects of Selectron applicator and pellets on isodose distributions

The Selectron is a mobile remote afterloading device which was developed specifically to reduce the radiation exposure to hospital personnel during intracavitary brachytherapy. Applicators for these devices contain source trains of 48 spherical pellets per channel, composed of both active and inactive pellets which have an external diameter of 2.5 mm. The configuration of pellets is chosen to optimize the dose distribution in accordance with the patient's geometry. A new dose calculation model has been proposed based on the separation of radiation into primary and secondary components. This model takes into account the attenuation of the primary radiation by the pellets. Isodose distributions around a Selectron standard applicator containing a typical patient loading of active pellets were measured and compared with those calculated by program SEEDS of the Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. (AECL) Theraplan computer planning system. The shielding effects of the stainless steel applicator tubes, the ovoids, screws, inactive and active pellets will be considered. The effects of scatter and attenuation by the pellets will be illustrated by measured isodose distributions around a single applicator tube.     

宫颈癌术后阴道三维腔内近距离放射治疗两种施源器剂量学研究

目的: 比较宫颈癌根治术后行阴道三维腔内近距离治疗采用单通道柱状、双卵圆球两种施源器的剂量学差异,为宫颈癌术后行阴道三维腔内近距离放疗选择施源器提供参考。方法: 回顾性分析2018年6月12月于川北医学院附属医院肿瘤科完成阴道三维腔内近距离放射治疗的早期宫颈癌术后患者20例,每例患者均在接受宫颈癌根治手术后因有术后放疗指征,进行术后三维腔内近距离放射治疗。每例患者分别采用单通道柱状施源器、双卵圆球施源器行后装治疗各1次,不分先后。利用每例患者放疗时的实际CT定位资料,共40个CT定位资料,按照统一的靶区勾画标准重新勾画靶区（靶体积及危及器官）后制作近距离腔内放射治疗计划。分别统计两种施源器近距离治疗计划中靶区体积、D90、D100和膀胱、直肠体积及其D2cc。 采用独立样本t检验方法比较两种施源器在宫颈癌术后三维近距离治疗中靶区、危及器官剂量。 结果：阴道柱状施源器组和双卵圆球施源器组平均临床靶区体积分别为:（29.56±4.51）cm3、（31.68±3.16 ）cm3,差异无统计学意义(P=0.095)。柱状施源器组D90、D100分别为：（611.60±8.70）cGy、（414.38±47.16）cGy;双卵圆球施源器组D90、D100分别为：（608.19±7.30）cGy、（359.54±38.13）cGy,两组CTV D90约为 6Gy,差异无统计学意义（P=0.180）;D100差异有统计学意义（P =0.003）。柱状施源器组与双卵圆球施源器组直肠体积分别为：（53.03±10.70）cm3、（52.37±8.87）cm3,差异无统计学意义(P =0.213);直肠D2cc分别为:（375.77±62.10）cGy、（341.57±38.43）cGy,差异有统计学意义（P=0.043）;膀胱体积分别为:（129.31±18.90）cm3、（123.14±13.15）cm3,差异无统计学意义（P=0.239）;膀胱D 2cc分别为：（391.13±62.94）cGy、（356.42±27.12）cGy,差异有统计学意义(P=0.032)。结论：宫颈癌根治术后阴道三维腔内近距离放射治疗中,与双卵圆球施源器相比,使用单通道柱状施源器靶区剂量分布更优,但膀胱、直肠受照剂量更高。因此在临床上,当直肠膀胱外照射受量较高、副反应较重可选择双卵圆球施源器,反之可选择单通道柱状施源器。     

插植针植入棒在妇科肿瘤术后残端近距离腔内放疗的应用

目的 探讨自制插植针植入棒施源器在妇科肿瘤术后阴道残端近距离腔内放疗的可行性和安全性,评估其临床应用价值。方法 收集中山大学肿瘤防治中心收治的妇科肿瘤术后患者62例,所有患者均有术后放疗指征,需接受三维近距离后装放疗补量。根据患者阴道残端情况选用不同型号插植针植入棒模板,依照预设通道在模板内放置阴道管和插植针。按照统一标准勾画靶区及危及器官,制定放疗计划,高危临床靶区（HR-CTV）处方剂量为5.5 Gy/次,通过剂量体积参数图评估靶区和危及器官体积、受照剂量等参数。结果 62例患者均在插植针植入棒模板引导下顺利完成后装放疗,共行140次插植治疗,剂量参数HR-CTV包绕90%靶区体积的平均剂量D_90%为（575.48±22.30）cGy,包绕膀胱、直肠、乙状结肠2 cm³体积的平均剂量D_2cm³分别为（328.69±102.71）cGy、（369.14±46.59）cGy、（27.28±71.27）cGy,小肠未进入靶区照射范围无统计,靶区体积大小、危及器官剂量之间的差异具有统计学意义（P<0.05）。结论 插植针植入棒施源器在妇瘤术后残端近距离腔内放疗有明显临床优势,满足预计划剂量要求,操作简易,具有良好应用前景。     

插植针植入棒在妇科肿瘤术后残端近距离腔内放疗的应用

目的 探讨自制插植针植入棒施源器在妇科肿瘤术后阴道残端近距离腔内放疗的可行性和安全性,评估其临床应用价值。方法 收集中山大学肿瘤防治中心收治的妇科肿瘤术后患者62例,所有患者均有术后放疗指征,需接受三维近距离后装放疗补量。根据患者阴道残端情况选用不同型号插植针植入棒模板,依照预设通道在模板内放置阴道管和插植针。按照统一标准勾画靶区及危及器官,制定放疗计划,高危临床靶区（HR-CTV）处方剂量为5.5 Gy/次,通过剂量体积参数图评估靶区和危及器官体积、受照剂量等参数。结果 62例患者均在插植针植入棒模板引导下顺利完成后装放疗,共行140次插植治疗,剂量参数HR-CTV包绕90%靶区体积的平均剂量D_90%为（575.48±22.30）cGy,包绕膀胱、直肠、乙状结肠2 cm³体积的平均剂量D_2cm³分别为（328.69±102.71）cGy、（369.14±46.59）cGy、（27.28±71.27）cGy,小肠未进入靶区照射范围无统计,靶区体积大小、危及器官剂量之间的差异具有统计学意义（P<0.05）。结论 插植针植入棒施源器在妇瘤术后残端近距离腔内放疗有明显临床优势,满足预计划剂量要求,操作简易,具有良好应用前景。     

PET-guided three-dimensional treatment planning of intracavitary gynecologic implants

PURPOSE: Positron emission tomography (PET) provides physiologic information that is not available from computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance studies. PET images may allow more accurate delineation of three-dimensional treatment planning target volumes of brachytherapy gynecologic (GYN) implants. This study evaluates the feasibility of using PET as the sole source of target, normal structure, and applicator delineation for intracavitary GYN implant treatment planning. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Standard Fletcher-Suit brachytherapy tandem and colpostat applicators were used for radiation delivery. After insertion of the applicator in the operating room, the patient was taken to a PET scanner, where 555 MBq (15 mCi) 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG) was administered intravenously. Forty-five minutes later, three localization tubes containing 18F-FDG were inserted into the source afterloading compartments of the tandem and colpostat. A whole-pelvis scan was performed, and the images were transferred to a commercial brachytherapy three-dimensional treatment planning system. A Foley catheter was inserted into the urinary bladder while the patient was in the operating room. The regions of radioactivity in the three applicator tube image were contoured for reconstruction of the applicator, along with the bladder, rectum, and 18F-FDG-defined target volumes. A treatment plan was generated that included dose-volume histograms and three-dimensional dose distribution displays, allowing the physician an opportunity to determine if adequate target coverage and normal-tissue sparing had been obtained. For a more conservative approach, three-dimensional dose distributions and dose-volume histograms delivered with conventional source arrangements and loading could be observed. The accuracy of applicator localization from the PET images was verified using a water phantom containing two aluminum CT-compatible tandems. The PET-defined and CT scan applicator reconstructions were compared. RESULTS: Feasibility of using PET images for treatment planning of brachytherapy intracavitary GYN implants has been demonstrated. A phantom study demonstrated applicator reconstruction accuracy in the axial direction to be better than 2 mm. Reconstruction accuracy in the longitudinal direction (principally craniocaudal) was similar to the PET scanner's voxel size of 4.3 mm. CONCLUSIONS: Brachytherapy intracavitary GYN implant design has traditionally been based on patient tumor staging, palpation, and clinical experience. PET images have the potential to provide better spatial information about the relationship of tumor and normal structures to the applicator. This information can be used to optimize the delivery of radiation therapy treatments. Thus far, six patients have been scanned using this process.     

宫颈癌三维腔内放疗同步体外施源器引导下IMRT剂量学研究

目的 评估外照射后体积仍较大宫颈癌行三维腔内近距离放疗同步体外施源器引导下IMRT剂量学可行性。方法 用Oncentra4.3 TPS为7例外照射后体积较大的宫颈癌患者分别设计内外融合放疗计划和三维腔内放疗计划;并对同一患者4次内外融合放疗计划进行基于弹性配准的三维剂量叠加,计算OAR累积剂量,使用配对t检验或Wilcoxon符号秩检验差异。结果 内外融合计划D90、V100、CI高于三维腔内计划(P=0.000);两种计划直肠、乙状结肠和膀胱D2cc差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);弹性配准三维剂量叠加法与DVH参数数值相加法两种OAR累积剂量计算方法计算直肠、乙状结肠、膀胱总D2cc值差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论 对外照射后体积仍较大的宫颈癌,内外融合放疗可显著提高靶区覆盖和适形度,并未明显增加OAR剂量。验证了三维叠加法与数值相加法对OAR累积剂量的评估方法的可行性。     

Magnetic resonance imaging during intracavitary gynecologic brachytherapy.

The cases of three patients, two with Stage III-B and one with Stage II-B carcinoma of the cervix, are cited to illustrate specific advantages of magnetic resonance (MR) imaging over computed tomography (CT) during intracavitary gynecologic brachytherapy. CT and MR were performed during the first of two intracavitary implants. To obtain artifact-free images with the intracavitary implant in place, a CT- and MR-compatible Fletcher system applicator was used. Although CT failed to differentiate the cervical tumor clearly from surrounding tissues, the area of pathology could be identified on MR by comparing the T1-weighted (T1W) and T2-weighted (T2W) images. Cervical tumors typically exhibit low-signal intensity on T1W and high-signal intensity on T2W scans, whereas paracervical soft tissues demonstrate high intensity on both T1W and T2W images. This contrast permits the size, location, and paracervical involvement of the tumor to be defined by MR. Multiplanar MR images obtained during the patients' intracavitary brachytherapy help demonstrate the actual anatomic relationship between the tumor and the applicator. Isodose distributions displayed on these images show that, in two cases, the tumor margin extended beyond the prescribed isodose line. Thus, MR may prove to be a clinically useful reference during intracavitary brachytherapy for ascertaining radiation dose to actual tumor volume.     

后装腔内插植放疗与三维后装腔内放疗治疗局部晚期宫颈癌的疗效与剂量学比较

目的探讨后装腔内插植放疗与三维后装腔内放疗治疗局部晚期宫颈癌的疗效与剂量学差异。方法将212例局部晚期宫颈癌患者,按照治疗方法的不同分为A组(106例)和B组(106例)。在体外三维适形调强放疗的基础上,A组采用后装腔内插植放疗,B组采用三维后装腔内放疗。对比两组近期疗效、并发症发生率以及剂量学差异。结果B组患者高危临床靶区D100、D90和中危临床靶区D100、D90均明显低于A组,膀胱、直肠、乙状结肠的D2cm3均明显高于A组,差异均有统计学意义(P﹤0.01)。A组患者总有效率明显高于B组,放射性直肠炎、放射性膀胱炎发生率均明显低于B组,差异均有统计学意义(P﹤0.01)。结论后装腔内插植放疗能够在提升肿瘤组织受照剂量的同时,降低危及器官的受照剂量,提升近期缓解率、控制率,减少不良反应。     

Conventional, conformal, and intensity-modulated radiation therapy treatment planning of external beam radiotherapy for cervical cancer: The impact of tumor regression

PURPOSE: Investigating the impact of tumor regression on the dose within cervical tumors and surrounding organs, comparing conventional, conformal, and intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) and the need for repeated treatment planning during irradiation. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Fourteen patients with cervical cancer underwent magnetic resonance (MR) imaging before treatment and once during treatment, after about 30 Gy. Target volumes and critical organs were delineated. First conventional, conformal, and IMRT plans were generated. To evaluate the impact of tumor regression, we calculated dose-volume histograms for these plans, using the delineations of the intratreatment MR images. Second conformal and IMRT plans were made based on the delineations of the intratreatment MR images. First and second plans were compared. RESULTS: The average volume receiving 95% of the prescribed dose (43 Gy) by the conventional, conformal, and IMRT plans was, respectively, for the bowel 626 cc, 427 cc, and 232 cc; for the rectum 101 cc, 90 cc, and 60 cc; and for the bladder 89 cc, 70 cc, and 58 cc. The volumes of critical organs at this dose level were significantly reduced using IMRT compared with conventional and conformal planning (p < 0.02 in all cases). After having delivered about 30 Gy external beam radiation therapy, the primary gross tumor volumes decreased on average by 46% (range, 6.1-100%). The target volumes on the intratreatment MR images remained sufficiently covered by the 95% isodose. Second IMRT plans significantly diminished the treated bowel volume, if the primary gross tumor volumes decreased >30 cc. CONCLUSIONS: Intensity-modulated radiation therapy is superior in sparing of critical organs compared with conventional and conformal treatment, with adequate coverage of the target volumes. Intensity-modulated radiation therapy remains superior after 30 Gy external beam radiation therapy, despite tumor regression and internal organ motion. Repeated IMRT planning can improve the sparing of the bowel and rectum in patients with substantial tumor regression.     

Is uniform target dose possible in IMRT plans in the head and neck?

: Various published reports involving intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) plans developed using automated optimization (inverse planning) have demonstrated highly conformal plans. These reported conformal IMRT plans involve significant target dose inhomogeneity, including both overdosage and underdosage within the target volume. In this study, we demonstrate the development of optimized beamlet IMRT plans that satisfy rigorous dose homogeneity requirements for all target volumes (e.g., ±5%), while also sparing the parotids and other normal structures.

: The treatment plans of 15 patients with oropharyngeal cancer who were previously treated with forward-planned multisegmental IMRT were planned again using an automated optimization system developed in-house. The optimization system allows for variable sized beamlets computed using a three-dimensional convolution/superposition dose calculation and flexible cost functions derived from combinations of clinically relevant factors (costlets) that can include dose, dose-volume, and biologic model-based costlets. The current study compared optimized IMRT plans designed to treat the various planning target volumes to doses of 66, 60, and 54 Gy with varying target dose homogeneity while using a flexible optimization cost function to minimize the dose to the parotids, spinal cord, oral cavity, brainstem, submandibular nodes, and other structures.

: In all cases, target dose uniformity was achieved through steeply varying dose-based costs. Differences in clinical plan evaluation metrics were evaluated for individual cases (eight different target homogeneity costlets), and for the entire cohort of plans. Highly conformal plans were achieved, with significant sparing of both the contralateral and ipsilateral parotid glands. As the homogeneity of the target dose distributions was allowed to decrease, increased sparing of the parotids (and other normal tissues) may be achieved. However, it was shown that relatively few patients would benefit from the use of increased target inhomogeneity, because the range of improvement in the parotid dose is relatively limited. Hot spots in the target volumes are shown to be unnecessary and do not assist in normal tissue sparing.

: Sparing of both parotids in patients receiving bilateral neck radiation can be achieved without compromising strict target dose homogeneity criteria. The geometry of the normal tissue and target anatomy are shown to be the major factor necessary to predict the parotid sparing that will be possible for any particular case.     

Adaptive brachytherapy treatment planning for cervical cancer using FDG-PET

PURPOSE: A dosimetric study was conducted to compare intracavitary brachytherapy using both a conventional and a custom loading intended to cover a positron emission tomography (PET)-defined tumor volume in patients with cervix cancer. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Eleven patients who underwent an [(18)F]-fluoro-deoxy-D-glucose (FDG)-PET in conjunction with their first, middle, or last brachytherapy treatment were included in this prospective study. A standard plan that delivers 6.5 Gy to point A under ideal conditions was compared with an optimized plan designed to conform the 6.5-Gy isodose surface to the PET defined volume. RESULTS: A total of 31 intracavitary brachytherapy treatments in conjunction with an FDG-PET were performed. The percent coverage of the target isodose surface for the first implant with and without optimization was 73% and 68% (p = 0.21). The percent coverage of the target isodose surface for the mid/final implant was 83% and 70% (p = 0.02), respectively. The dose to point A was higher with the optimized plans for both the first implant (p = 0.02) and the mid/last implants (p = 0.008). The dose to 2 cm(3) and 5 cm(3) of both the bladder and rectum were not significantly different. CONCLUSIONS: FDG-PET based treatment planning allowed for improved dose coverage of the tumor without significantly increasing the dose to the bladder and rectum.     

三维适形放疗与调强放疗在胸部上中段食管癌术后放疗中的剂量分布比较

目的:比较在胸部上中段食管癌术后预防性放射治疗中调强放射治疗（IMRT）与三维适形放射治疗(3D-CRT)剂量分布差异。方法:采用CMS治疗计划系统,对10例胸部上中段食管癌术后病理为T3/T4和/或淋巴结阳性患者分别设定3D-CRT 54Gy/27f照射和IMRT 54Gy/27f照射,比较两者相关靶区和危及器官的剂量体积直方图参数及靶区适形指数（CI）。结果:在相同靶区相同剂量模式下,10例患者在肺、脊髓、胃等组织器官受量近似一致的情况下,IMRT等剂量线的剂量分布（95%CTV、95%PTV和100%PTV）及靶区适形指数（CI）（0.93 vs 0.79）均优于3D-CRT。结论:相同靶区相同剂量模式下,胸部上中段食管癌术后预防性照射治疗时,调强放疗技术（IMRT）靶区剂量分布优于三维适形放疗（3D-CRT）。     

Screens in ovoids of a Selectron cervix applicator

The addition of screens in the vaginal source holders of a cervix applicator for intracavitary brachytherapy reduces the dose to rectum and bladder and therefore diminishes the number of rectal and vesical complications. Shielding properties of tungsten rectal and bladder screens of a Selectron cervix applicator, loaded with spherical cesium sources, were determined for verification of dose calculations. Transmission characteristics of half-disk shaped tungsten screen segments in a single ovoid were measured in a water phantom. The minimum transmission ratios are 60, 70 and 80% for segment thickness of 5.0, 3.5 and 2.0 mm, respectively. The accuracy of the new screen correction algorithm of the Selectron Planning System was assessed by comparing measured and calculated dose rates and was found to be better than +/- 4%. The correction algorithm provides a method to analyse the efficacy of screens in the ovoids for various segment geometries and orientations without extensive phantom measurements. Isotransmission and isodose calculations were made for a typical clinical applicator set-up and source distribution. The dose reduction to rectum and bladder, near the bottom and top of the ovoids was analysed in detail. A 3.5 mm thick rectum and bladder screen in each ovoid reduces the dose approximately by 20% to the rectum and by 15% to the bladder. A distance enlargement of about 5 mm between ovoid and rectum or bladder, e.g. by packing, results in a comparable dose reduction. Shielding properties of a Selectron cervix applicator, provided with screens, were compared with those of some Fletcher-type applicators. Significant differences between the transmission ratios and shielded areas of the screens of both systems near rectum and bladder were observed.     

Practical Considerations During Brachytherapy Applicator Placement for Locally Advanced Cervical Cancer

Brachytherapy is an integral part of the definitive treatment for locally advanced cervical cancer following external beam radiation therapy. Placement of brachytherapy applicators is an important skill for radiation oncologists and care must be taken to place applicators appropriately to limit complications associated with the procedure and ensure that the radiation dose sufficiently covers the target while sparing the surrounding organs at risk. Using example cases, we discuss strategies for the placement of brachytherapy applicators in patients with anatomical considerations such as large obstructing uterine fibroids and the retroverted uterus. We also discuss the management of uterine perforation during applicator placement and approaches to patients with a poor response to external beam radiation therapy before brachytherapy delivery. We draw upon the available literature and our clinical experience to suggest approaches to these challenging scenarios.