Feasibility of Gait Event Detection Using Intramuscular Electromyography in the Child with Cerebral Palsy

The objective of this study was to develop and test the feasibility of a model that employs electromyographic (EMG) signals to predict the occurrence of gait events in the child with cerebral palsy (CP). This model could be the basis of a future functional electrical stimulation (FES) control system to assist gait. Two children were implanted with bifilar intramuscular electrodes into the quadriceps muscle bilaterally. Muscle activity and gait parameters were recorded, and a fuzzy inference system was used to correlate EMG to five distinct gait events. For nine of the 10 gait events evaluated, the model predicted gait events to within 82 ms on average, as referenced to the VICON motion analysis system. For eight of the 10 events, prediction errors were 0.3% or less. Results indicate that EMG from the proximal musculature could be used to predict the occurrence of gait events in these two children with CP.     

Pediatric Cerebral Palsy in Botswana: Etiology,Outcomes, and Comorbidities

BackgroundCerebral palsy is the most common cause of motor dysfunction in children worldwide and is often accompanied by multiple comorbidities. Although cerebral palsy has been studied extensively in high-resource settings, there are few published studies on cerebral palsy etiology, outcomes and comorbidities in low-resource settings.MethodsChildren with cerebral palsy were prospectively enrolled from inpatient and outpatient settings at a referral center in Gaborone, Botswana, in a cross-sectional study conducted from 2013 to 2014. Cerebral palsy etiology, outcomes, and comorbidities were determined through caregiver interviews, review of medical records, and direct physical examination.ResultsSixty-eight children with cerebral palsy were enrolled. Subjects were 41% male, with a median age of 4 years (interquartile range = 2 to 7). The most common etiologies for cerebral palsy in our cohort were intrapartum hypoxic events (18%), postnatal infections (15%), prematurity (15%), focal ischemic strokes (10%), and prenatal infections (10%). Severe motor impairment was common, with the most severe category present in 41%. The predominant comorbidities were cognitive impairment (84%), epilepsy (77%), and visual impairment (46%).ConclusionsCerebral palsy in Botswana has different etiologies and is associated with poorer outcomes and higher prevalence of comorbidities than what has been reported in high-resource settings. Further studies are necessary to determine optimal preventative and treatment strategies in this population.     

Localization of Basal Ganglia and Thalamic Damage in Dyskinetic Cerebral Palsy

BackgroundDyskinetic cerebral palsy affects 15%-20% of patients with cerebral palsy. Basal ganglia injury is associated with dyskinetic cerebral palsy, but the patterns of injury within the basal ganglia predisposing to dyskinetic cerebral palsy are unknown, making treatment difficult. For example, deep brain stimulation of the globus pallidus interna improves dystonia in only 40% of patients with dyskinetic cerebral palsy. Basal ganglia injury heterogeneity may explain this variability.MethodsTo investigate this, we conducted a qualitative systematic review of basal ganglia and thalamic damage in dyskinetic cerebral palsy. Reviews and articles primarily addressing genetic or toxic causes of cerebral palsy were excluded yielding 22 studies (304 subjects).ResultsThirteen studies specified the involved basal ganglia nuclei (subthalamic nucleus, caudate, putamen, globus pallidus, or lentiform nuclei, comprised by the putamen and globus pallidus). Studies investigating the lentiform nuclei (without distinguishing between the putamen and globus pallidus) showed that all subjects (19 of 19) had lentiform nuclei damage. Studies simultaneously but independently investigating the putamen and globus pallidus also showed that all subjects (35 of 35) had lentiform nuclei damage (i.e., putamen or globus pallidus damage); this was followed in frequency by damage to the putamen alone (70 of 101, 69%), the subthalamic nucleus (17 of 25, 68%), the thalamus (88 of 142, 62%), the globus pallidus (7/35, 20%), and the caudate (6 of 47, 13%). Globus pallidus damage was almost always coincident with putaminal damage.ConclusionsNoting consistent involvement of the lentiform nuclei in dyskinetic cerebral palsy, these results could suggest two groups of patients with dyskinetic cerebral palsy: those with putamen-predominant damage and those with panlenticular damage involving both the putamen and the globus pallidus. Differentiating between these groups could help predict response to therapies such as deep brain stimulation.     

Intrathecal Baclofen Therapy for Spasticity of Cerebral Origin: Cerebral Palsy and Brain Injury

Spasticity affects approximately 66% of individuals with cerebral palsy and 14% of the 100,000 individuals who, each year, experience brain injury in the US. This spasticity interferes with motor function and limits range of motion. It may cause pain and impede mobility, transfers, activities of daily living, sitting posture, and sleep. In addition, spasticity can contribute to the formation of pressure sores and joint contractures and make nursing or caregiving difficult. Several treatment options are available for intractable spasticity. For some diagnoses, oral medications are still the treatment of choice, while in other settings injection therapy may be more appropriate. If, however, they are ineffective or cause too many side effects, intrathecal baclofen therapy (ITB) may be a valuable alternative. ITB is effective, nondestructive, titratable, and reversible. In addition, it is associated with fewer CNS-related side effects than oral Lioresal (Novartis Pharma AG, Basel, Switzerland). Intrathecal baclofen therapy may improve range of motion, facilitate movement, reduce the patient's expenditure of energy, facilitate nursing, reduce the risk of developing contractures, and, in some cases, diminish pain resulting from spasticity and/or spasms. It also may improve speech, gait, upper extremity function, and activities of daily living, including communication, eating, dressing, hygiene, and other aspects of self-care. A recent study shows that treatment with intrathecal baclofen reduces the need for corrective orthopedic surgeries. Patient selection should be done in a multidisciplinary spasticity setting, where the expertise for different treatment modalities is available. Patients must be screened for response to the drug prior to implantation of the drug delivery pump. Maintenance doses for intrathecal baclofen range from 22 to 1400 μg/day, with most patients adequately maintained on 90–703 μg/day. Complications, while rare, are most often related to the drug delivery catheter. Intrathecal baclofen treatment may be cost effective, primarily due to a reduced need for hospitalizations and treatment of adverse events related to uncontrolled spasticity, and may improve quality of life. Intrathecal baclofen shows long-term efficacy in both higher and lower level patients with cerebral origin spasticity.     

Long-Term Follow-Up of Pediatric Patients with Dyskinetic Cerebral Palsy and Deep Brain Stimulation

Background

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) has been increasingly used in the management of dyskinetic cerebral palsy (DCP). Data on long-term effects and the safety profile are rare.

Objectives

We assessed the efficacy and safety of pallidal DBS in pediatric patients with DCP.

Methods

The STIM-CP trial was a prospective, single-arm, multicenter study in which patients from the parental trial agreed to be followed-up for up to 36 months. Assessments included motor and non-motor domains.

Results

Of the 16 patients included initially, 14 (mean inclusion age 14 years) were assessed. There was a significant change in the (blinded) ratings of the total Dyskinesia Impairment Scale at 36 months. Twelve serious adverse events (possibly) related to treatment were documented.

Conclusion

DBS significantly improved dyskinesia, but other outcome parameters did not change significantly. Investigations of larger homogeneous cohorts are needed to further ascertain the impact of DBS and guide treatment decisions in DCP. © 2023 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.     

Gait Improvement in Patients with Cerebral Palsy by Visual and Auditory Feedback

Objectives: To study the effects of gait training with visual and auditory feedback cues on the walking abilities of patients with gait disorders due to cerebral palsy. Materials and Methods: Visual and auditory feedback cues were generated by a wearable device, driven by inertial sensors. Ten randomly selected patients with gait disorders due to cerebral palsy and seven age‐matched healthy individuals trained with visual feedback cues, while ten patients and eight age‐matched healthy individuals trained with auditory feedback cues. Baseline performance (walking speed and stride length along a 10‐m straight track) was measured before device use. Following 20‐min training with the device and a 20‐min break, performance without the device was measured again and compared with the baseline performance. Results: For the patients who trained with visual feedback, the average improvement was 21.70% ± 36.06% in the walking speed and 8.72% ± 9.47% in the stride length. For the patients who trained with auditory feedback, the average improvement was 25.43% ± 28.65% in the walking speed and 13.58% ± 13.10% in the stride length. For the healthy individuals who trained with visual feedback, the average improvement was ?2.41% ± 9.54% in the walking speed and ?2.84% ± 10.11% in the stride length. For the healthy individuals who trained with auditory feedback, the average improvement was 0.01% ± 7.73% in the walking speed and ?2.03% ± 6.15% in the stride length. Conclusions: Training with visual and auditory feedback cues can improve gait parameters in patients with gait disorders due to cerebral palsy. This was contrasted by no improvement in age‐matched healthy individuals.     

A Cross-sectional Survey of Growth and Nutritional Status in Children With Cerebral Palsy in West China

BackgroundWe describe the growth and nutritional status of children with cerebral palsy (2 to 18 years old) in West China and to explore the correlation between the nutritional status and age, gender, and gross and fine motor function.MethodsWe performed a cross-sectional survey of children registered as having cerebral palsy in the China Disabled Persons' Federation branch in Chengdu. Growth (height and weight) and nutritional (body mass index) status were recorded. Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) and Manual Ability Classification System (MACS) were used to determine gross and fine motor function, respectively. The association between nutritional status and age, GMFCS and MACS levels was evaluated.ResultsWe enrolled 377 children (53.6% male), among whom 160 (42.4%) were stunting, 48 (12.7%) underweight, 81 (21.5%) thin, and 70 (18.5%) overweight and obese. Thinness was the main nutritional problem in older patients (12 to 18 years), whereas overweight and obesity were the major issues in younger patients (2 to 12 years). Growth deviation and malnutrition were significantly more prevalent in patients with severe motor impairments. A significant negative correlation was found between nutritional status and age, GMFCS and MACS levels, and between growth and GMFCS and MACS levels.ConclusionsGrowth abnormality is common in children with cerebral palsy. Malnutrition and overnutrition both exist in children with cerebral palsy. Characteristics at different age stages and motor functional levels should be taken into consideration in the management of growth and nutrition in this population.     

New Animal Model to Mimic Spastic Cerebral Palsy: The Brain‐Damaged Pig Preparation

Objective. Classically, a decerebrated animal by mesencephalic lesioning is considered the paradigm for experimental study of spasticity that accompanies cerebral palsy, but, the model does not actually correspond with anatomical and pathologic realities. Therefore, a new and novel animal model is needed. Our objective was to create a more adapted animal model to be used in neuromodulation and functional electrical stimulation research. Materials and Methods. Our new model in pigs closely simulates cortical and subcortical lesions produced by perinatal anoxic brain damage, which is present in spastic cerebral palsy and other spastic conditions. Our surgical lesions were produced by means of resecting the rolandic and perirolandic areas (cortical lesion) and aspiration and coagulation of white matter and deep gray nuclei. This model results in anatomic and pathologic configurations that are similar to human spastic cerebral palsy. We physiologically tested our model both in the pre‐ and postoperative situations. After experimental stimulation in nonoperated animals to establish mean latencies for preoperative bilateral cervical motor‐evoked potentials and to confirm the absence of abnormally propagated electromyographic activity, another group of animals were retested using the same experimental variables before and after creation of the surgical lesioning in cortical and subcortical pyramidal areas. Results. Normal latencies and no propagated electromyographic responses were found in sham animals. There were significant differences found in both latencies for motor‐evoked potentials and electromyographic propagated responses when compared to pre‐ and postoperative values, which signaled abnormal physiology. Conclusions. This animal model presents anatomic similarities to lesions currently present in cerebral palsy and related diseases. The model also shows electrophysiologic differences that signal chronic brain damage. Therefore, this method is useful in research when spastic syndromes produced by upper motor lesions need to be modeled.     

The Two-Arm Coordination Test: Maturation of Bimanual Coordination in Typically Developing Children and Deficits in Children with Unilateral Cerebral Palsy

ABSTRACT

Background: Tools to assess bimanual coordination are scant. We aimed to: 1) provide normative data of maturation of bimanual coordination in tipically developing (TD) children measured by the Two Arm Coordination Test (TACT), and 2) validate the TACT as an instrument to specifically discriminate impairment of bimanual coordination in children with unilateral cerebral palsy (UCP). Procedure: Cross-sectional observational study. 252 TD children and 26 children with UCP performed 8 trials of TACT (following a star pattern with a pointer steered by coordinated movements of both arms). Number of errors and time were combined in a performance index of motor learning.Results: In TD children, bimanual coordination improved with age (F(7,244)=36.888, p<.001). Children with UCP had a poorer bimanual coordination than TD children (all t>24.25, all p<.01). TACT scores were correlated moderately to manual dexterity and manual ability (all r>-.452, all p<.039), showing the capacity of the TACT to provide information on different aspects of hand function. Conclusion: TACT is a valid instrument to assess bimanual coordination.