Genetic and environmental influences on victims, bullies and bully-victims in childhood

BACKGROUND: Three groups of children are involved in bullying: victims, bullies and bully-victims who are both bullies and victims of bullying. Understanding the origins of these groups is important since they have elevated emotional and behavioural problems, especially the bully-victims. No research has examined the genetic and environmental influences on these social roles. METHOD: Mother and teacher reports of victimisation and bullying were collected in a nationally representative cohort of 1,116 families with 10-year-old twins. Model-fitting was used to examine the relative influence of genetics and environments on the liability to be a victim, a bully or a bully-victim. RESULTS: Twelve percent of children were severely bullied as victims, 13% were frequent bullies, and 2.5% were heavily involved as bully-victims. Genetic factors accounted for 73% of the variation in victimisation and 61% of the variation in bullying, with the remainder explained by environmental factors not shared between the twins. The covariation between victim and bully roles (r = .25), which characterises bully-victims, was accounted for by genetic factors only. Some genetic factors influenced both victimisation and bullying, although there were also genetic factors specific to each social role. CONCLUSIONS: Children's genetic endowments, as well as their surrounding environments, influence which children become victims, bullies and bully-victims. Future research identifying mediating characteristics that link the genetic and environmental influences to these social roles could provide targets for intervention.     

Bullied by siblings: association with peer victimisation and behaviour problems in Israeli lower secondary school children

BACKGROUND: The association of bullying victimisation by siblings with a) involvement in bullying at school and b) behaviour problems among lower secondary school children in Israel was investigated. METHOD: Self-report questionnaires of sibling victimisation, peer bullying experiences and behaviour problems were completed by 921 pupils aged 12-15 (mean age 13.7 years). RESULTS: Of the sample, 16.2% were directly bullied by their siblings at home and 11.9% were direct victims of bullying by peers at school every week. More than half of victims of bullying by siblings (50.7%) were also involved in bullying behaviour at school compared to only 12.4% of those not victimised by siblings, indicating a strong link between intrafamilial and extrafamilial peer relationships. Children with poor sibling and peer relationships were at a highly increased risk for behaviour problems. Ethnic (Israeli Jewish vs. Arab) and sex differences were small compared to the effects of sibling relationship on behaviour problems. CONCLUSION: Intervention strategies directed at reducing bullying in school should take into account pupils' experiences of victimisation by siblings at home.     

Associations between bullying behaviour, psychosomatic complaints, emotional and behavioural problems

Objective:   Bullying or being bullied have been demonstrated to be related to a broad spectrum of behavioural, emotional and social problems. The present study aimed at analysing psychosomatic, emotional and behavioural problems among Italian bullies, victims and bully victims.
Study design:   In a cross-sectional study, 565 primary-school children completed self-reported measures for bullying, victimisation and psychosomatic complaints. Teachers rated each child on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire.
Results:   Within our sample, 11.2% of children were classified as bullies, 7.1% were classified as victims and 10.4% were classified as bully victims. Compared with the students who were not involved in bullying, victims had a higher risk for conduct problems (2.43 (1.18–5.03)), hyperactivity (2.41 (1.05–5.53)) and problems with peers (4.40 (2.08–9.33)). Bully victims had a higher risk for conduct problems (2.41 (1.28–4.54) and hyperactivity (2.58 (1.25–5.32)). Finally, bullies had higher risk for hyperactivity (2.06 (1.01–4.21)). All groups of children also had a higher risk for several psychosomatic symptoms than uninvolved children.
Conclusions:   Children involved in bullying as victims and bully victims had significantly higher risk for psychosomatic problems and psychosocial maladjustment than uninvolved children, whereas bullies manifested the fewest number of adjustment problems. When addressing bullying in a school community, particular care should be devoted to the identification and help of children who are involved as victims or bully victims.     

Maternal expressed emotion and adjustment in children with epilepsy

Epilepsy in childhood may alter family relationships but the relevance of these changes for the increased rates of psychopathology has been little investigated. This study uses maternal expressed emotion (EE) to examine family relationships of children with epilepsy and the association with high risk for psychiatric disorder. EE was assessed using the Camberwell Family Interview carried out with the mothers of 22 schoolchildren with chronic epilepsy who were attending a general hospital outpatient clinic. Sixteen of these children had similarly aged healthy siblings who served as controls. High risk for psychiatric disorder in the children and mothers was assessed using behavioural, mood, and self-esteem questionnaires completed by mothers, teachers, and children. It was found that mothers showed significantly more emotional overinvolvement and a trend for more hostility towards their children with epilepsy than towards sibling controls. For the 22 children with epilepsy, maternal emotional overinvolvement was not associated with child behavioural deviance. High levels of criticism and, to a lesser extent, hostility did show associations with child behavioural deviance, and the strongest links were between maternal criticism and maternal rated antisocial and overactive behaviour in the child. Fewer positive comments by mothers towards the children were associated with child emotional symptoms and lower self-esteem in a number of areas. This study suggests that further research could consider the appropriateness of psychological intervention for families in which mothers are critical and hostile and whose children show antisocial behaviour.     

Young children's sibling relationship quality: distal and proximal correlates

Background:  Relationships within families are interdependent and related to distal environmental factors. Low socioeconomic status (SES) and high household chaos (distal factors) have been linked to less positive marital and parent–child relationships, but have not yet been examined with regard to young children's sibling relationships. The present study tested direct associations between these distal factors and sibling relationship quality, as well as examining parenting as a potential mediator and/or moderator.
Method:  One hundred and eighteen families with children aged 4 to 8 years were interviewed and completed questionnaires during home visits. Children provided reports about the quality of their sibling relationships via a puppet interview, and mothers and fathers reported on household chaos and their exertion of harsh discipline. Researchers rated parental warmth towards the children. Finally, parental education and household density were assessed as indicators of SES.
Results:  Using structural equation modelling (SEM), we found that lower levels of household chaos were related to better quality sibling relationships, and that this link was mediated by maternal warmth and paternal harsh discipline, as well as moderated by maternal harsh discipline.
Conclusion:  Household chaos was more strongly linked to relationship quality between family members than SES, warranting further research and practical application. The study of children's sibling relationships should take into account inter-relations between proximal and distal environmental factors to fully reveal the complexity of family life.     

Moderating Effects of Components of Resilience on Obesity Across Income Strata in the National Survey of Children's Health

Objective

This study examined whether components of resilience at the family or child level are associated with a decreased risk of obesity in children after accounting for community-, family-, and individual-level stressors associated with an increased risk of obesity.

The representation of fathers by children of depressed mothers: refining the meaning of parentification in high‐risk samples

Background: Children’s representations of mothers in doll‐play are associated with child adjustment. Despite the importance of fathers for children’s adjustment, especially in the context of maternal psychopathology, few studies have considered children’s representations of their fathers. Method: We examined the portrayal of fathers by 5‐year‐old children of depressed (N = 55) and non‐depressed (N = 39) mothers in a doll‐play procedure concerning family experience. Results: Children gave equal prominence in their play to mothers and fathers. Representations of fathers were unrelated to maternal mood, but were associated with parental conflict. Representations of child care for the father that was unreciprocated predicted poor child adjustment in school, but only in children exposed to maternal postnatal depression. Conclusions: It may be clinically useful to consider children’s distinctive representations of their mother and father; but the concept of parentification in relation to risk and resilience effects requires refinement.     

Editorial

What makes young people act in antisocial ways? This question is discussed from several different angles in our current issue. Delinquency is not, of course, a new phenomenon: for those interested in reading a chilling account of life in London in the early years of the last century, Cyril Burt's The young delinquent, published in 1925, is worth tracking down. Definitive answers seem as far away as ever, but the idea that delinquency might be influenced to a significant extent by genetic mechanisms is still a controversial one. Taylor et al. conducted a twin study, and found the variance in delinquent behaviour among adolescent boys and girls was associated largely with experiences that were unique to individuals. Family influences accounted for half of the remaining variance in risk less than 20% could be attributed to additive genetic factors. Their findings imply, they suggest, scope for prevention and/or intervention. On a similar topic, Hawker and Boulton ask, why is it that some children are bullied? What effect does bullying have on children's emotional adjustment? They review the history of research on this topic, going back over two decades to the pioneering studies of Dan Olweus. Using meta-analytic techniques, they conclude victims become emotionally distressed and, in particular, depressed. Clinicians should realise that children who present with emotional problems may be the victims of bullying; interventions that target either bullying or emotional distress may reduce the severity of both problems.     

A behavioural teratologic study on offspring of self-poisoned pregnant women.

Ninety-three cases born from women who attempted suicide by taking large doses of chemicals and eight cases who had mothers affected by a chemical poisoning as accident during pregnancy were studied. Data of birth weight and gestational time, congenital anomalies and postnatal disorders were obtained in cases and matched controls (sociological twins). Test examinations were performed in both cases--controls and their mothers in the home of families. The mothers of index children had a lower socioeconomic status and more were unmarried than the Hungarian pregnant population at large. The behaviour of index and control mothers showed some obvious differences. The bivariate analyses indicated some possible teratogenic effect of maternal poisoning, but it was not confirmed by multivariate analysis except lower birth weight. Thus differences between cases and control were explained mainly by the maternal behavioural factors.     

The association between direct and relational bullying and behaviour problems among primary school children

The prevalence of direct and relational bullying and their differential relationship to behaviour problems in young primary school children was investigated. Individual interviews were conducted with 1982 children aged 6 9 years (mean age 7.6 years) and 1639 parents completed the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire regarding behaviour problems of their children. Of the 1639 children with both data sets, 4.3% were direct bullies, 39.8 % victims, and 10.2% both bullied and were victimised frequently (bully/victims). The rates for relational bullying were 1.1% bullies, 37.9% victims, and 5.9% bully/victims. All children involved in direct bullying had significantly increased total behaviour problems, hyperactivity, conduct problems, and peer problem scores, and lower prosocial behaviour scores compared to those not involved in bullying (neutrals). Findings were similar for relational bullying involvement and behaviour problems for bully/victims and victims but less pronounced. Relational bullies had the lowest behaviour problem scores while being rated the least prosocially inclined children, consistent with the concept of a cool manipulator. Overall, direct bully/victims and children who were involved in both direct and relational bullying behaviour had the highest rates of behaviour problems. No relationship between victimisation and increased emotional problems were found. Those involved in bullying behaviour who show externalising and hyperactivity problems in primary school may be at increased risk for persistent conduct problems. Different interventions may be needed for those involved in relational bullying only, both direct and relational bullying, and those with additional behaviour problems.     

A prospective longitudinal study of children's theory of mind and adolescent involvement in bullying

Background: Theory of mind (ToM) allows the understanding and prediction of other people’s behaviours based on their mental states (e.g. beliefs). It is important for healthy social relationships and thus may contribute towards children’s involvement in bullying. The present study investigated whether children involved in bullying during early adolescence had poor ToM in childhood. Method: Participants were members of the Environmental Risk (E‐Risk) Longitudinal Twin Study, a nationally representative sample of 2,232 children and their families. We visited families when children were 5, 7, 10 and 12 years. ToM was assessed when the children were 5 years using eight standardized tasks. Identification of those children who were involved in bullying as victims, bullies and bully‐victims using mothers’, teachers’ and children’s reports was carried out when they were 12 years’ old. Results: Poor ToM predicted becoming a victim (effect size, d = 0.26), bully (d = 0.25) or bully‐victim (d = 0.44) in early adolescence. These associations remained for victims and bully‐victims when child‐specific (e.g. IQ) and family factors (e.g. child maltreatment) were controlled for. Emotional and behavioural problems during middle childhood did not modify the association between poor ToM and adolescent bullying experiences. Conclusion: Identifying and supporting children with poor ToM early in life could help reduce their vulnerability for involvement in bullying and thus limit its adverse effects on mental health.     

Le développement des relations gémellaires entre 3 et 5 ans : représentations des enfants et de leurs parents

Aim of study

The aim of this article is to understand how twinning (monozygotic and dizygotic twins), gender (female and male) and temperament (emotionality, activity, sociability and timidity) influence the building of a twin relationship according to twin children and their parents.

THE IMPACT OF MATERNAL DEPRESSION IN YOUNG CHILDREN

An urban working class sample of depressed mothers with two-yr-old children was compared with a control group of non-depressed mothers using maternal interviews, home observation of mother/child interaction, and developmental assessment of the children. Measures were repeated after six months. Children of depressed mothers showed more emotional and behavioural disturbance and delay in expressive language development. Depressed mothers had more past and current adverse experiences, particularly in close relationships. In general depressed mothers were less responsive to their children and less able to sustain social interaction: their children were more often distressed, but there was a big variation in quality of mother/child interaction within the depressed group.     

Unraveling the effect of genes and environment in the transmission of parental antisocial behavior to children's conduct disturbance, depression and hyperactivity

Background: A critical issue in devising effective interventions for the treatment of children’s behavioral and emotional problems identifying genuine family environmental factors that place children at risk. In most twin and family studies, environmental factors are confounded with both direct genetic risk from parents and the indirect effect of genes influencing parents’ ability to provide an optimal rearing environment. The present study was undertaken to determine whether parental psychopathology, specifically parental antisocial behavior (ASP), is a genuine environmental risk factor for juvenile conduct disturbance, depression and hyperactivity, or whether the association between parental ASP and children’s behavioral and emotional problems can be explained as a secondary consequence of the intergenerational transmission of genetic factors. Methods: An extended children of twins design comprised of data collected on 2,674 adult female and male twins, their spouses, and 2,454 of their children was used to test whether genetic and/or family environmental factors best accounted for the association between parental antisocial behavior and children’s behavioral problems. An age‐matched sample of 2,826 juvenile twin pairs from the Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavioral Development was also included to examine developmental differences in gene expression by partitioning child‐specific transmissible effects from those effects that persist into adulthood. The fit of alternative models was evaluated using the statistical program Mx. Results: We found distinct patterns of transmission between parental antisocial behavior and juvenile conduct, depression and hyperactivity. Genetic and family environmental factors accounted for the resemblance between parents’ ASP and children’s conduct disturbance. Family environmental factors alone explained the association between child depression and parental ASP, and the impact of parental ASP on hyperactivity was entirely genetic. Conclusions: These findings underscore differences in the contribution of genetic and environmental factors on the patterns of association between parental antisocial behavior and juvenile psychopathology, having important clinical implications for the prevention and amelioration of child behavioral and emotional problems.     

Well Sibling Psychological Adjustment to Chronic Physical Disorder in a Sibling: How Important is Maternal Awareness of Their Illness Attitudes and Perceptions?

The psychological adjustment of healthy siblings was investigated in relation to their attitudes and perceptions about their brother's or sister's chronic physical disorder, to their mothers' awareness of these attitudes and perceptions, and to three other maternal factors (maternal distress, maternal social support, and amount of care demanded by the physical disorder). Sixty-two well siblings and mothers of children with a range of chronic physical disorders completed standardised questionnaires. The majority of siblings did not appear to have adjustment problems, although the sample had slightly increased rates of emotional symptoms compared to the general population. Mothers rated well siblings as having more negative attitudes and perceptions about the physical disorder than reported by siblings themselves. A multiple regression analysis indicated that better sibling adjustment was associated with higher maternal awareness of their attitudes and perceptions. These findings support Varni and Wallander's (1998) model that emphasises the role of relationship and attitude variables in child adjustment to chronic physical disorder. The implications of these findings for clinical practice are discussed.     

Health‐related quality of life and bullying in adolescence

Objective: To investigate if adolescents’ HRQL (Health‐Related Quality of Life) is associated with experiences of school bullying. Method: A total of 758 adolescents completed a questionnaire to help examine HRQL and the prevalence of bullying. Results: Associations were found between being bullied and all of the examined aspects of HRQL. To be involved in bullying – both as a bully and bully/victim (both bully and victim) – is related to experiences of physical and emotional difficulties. Being bullied during the latter school years affects aspects of HRQL to a greater extent than being bullied during earlier school years. Conclusion: Peers have a pronounced influence on the adolescents’ life, which can be seen in the association between experiences of bullying and its association with HRQL. Being bullied is associated with significantly poorer ratings of HRQL for adolescents in nearly every aspect of day‐to‐day functioning and quality of life.     

Santé mentale des mères et des enfants de familles sans logement en Île-de-France. Résultats de l’enquête ENFAMS

IntroductionThe number of homeless families in the Greater Paris region has increased over time and given their vulnerability, it is necessary to better know their characteristics, especially in terms of mental health. Our objective was to study the prevalence of mental health difficulties among homeless women and their children and associated factors.MethodsThis study was based on the ENFAMS survey, conducted during the winter of 2012–2013 among 801 homeless families in the Greater Paris region, by trained interviewers and psychologists. Mothers’ depression was assessed by the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) and their Post Traumatique Stress Disorders was assessed by the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI). Depression and PTSD of the mothers were studied in weighted Poisson regression models with robust error variance. The emotional and behavioural difficulties of children were assessed by the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and studied by linear regression.ResultsHomeless women have a high prevalence of depression (28.8 %) and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) (18.9 %); their children have high levels of emotional and behavioral difficulties (20.8 %). Factors associated with maternal depression include fluency in French, suicidal risk, PTSD, and unmet medical needs. The risk of PTSD in mothers was associated with departure from the country of origin for a violent cause, depression and residential instability. Children's emotional and behavioral difficulties were associated with parents’ birth region, residential mobility, children's health and overweight, children's sleep patterns, mother's suicidal risk, the fact that children do not like their housing or are victim of school bullying.ConclusionThe standard health care system and primary care professionals must take advantage of the opportunity offered by each contact with homeless families to detect mental health disorders, which have a high prevalence in both mothers and their children, and refer them to existing structures to facilitate their access to health care.     

A population‐based investigation of behavioural and emotional problems and maternal mental health: associations with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability

Background: While research indicates elevated behavioural and emotional problems in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and decreased well‐being in their parents, studies do not typically separate out the contribution of ASD from that of associated intellectual disabilities (ID). We investigated child behavioural and emotional problems, and maternal mental health, among cases with and without ASD and ID in a large population‐representative sample. Methods: Cross‐sectional comparison of child behavioural and emotional problems and maternal mental health measures among 18,415 children (5 to 16 years old), of whom 47 had an ASD, 51 combined ASD with ID, 590 had only ID, and the remainder were the comparison group with no ASD or ID. Results: The prevalence of likely clinical levels of behavioural and emotional problems was highest among children with ASD (with and without ID). After controlling for age, gender, adversity, and maternal mental health, the presence of ASD and ID significantly and independently increased the odds for hyperactivity symptoms, conduct, and emotional problems. Emotional disorder was more prevalent in mothers of children with ASD (with or without ID). The presence of ASD, but not ID, significantly increased the odds for maternal emotional disorder. As has been found in previous research, positive maternal mental health was not affected by the presence of ASD or ID. Conclusions: ASD and ID are independent risk factors for behavioural and emotional problems. ASD (but not ID) is positively associated with maternal emotional disorder. Approaches to diagnosing hyperactivity and conduct problems in children with ASD may need to be reconsidered.     

Bullied by peers in childhood and borderline personality symptoms at 11 years of age: a prospective study

Background: Abuse by adults has been reported as a potent predictor of borderline personality disorder (BPD). Unclear is whether victimisation by peers increases the risk of borderline personality symptoms. Method: The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) prospective, longitudinal observation study of 6050 mothers and their children. Child bullying was measured by self‐report and mother and teacher report between 4 and 10 years. Family adversity was assessed from pregnancy to 4 years; parenting behaviours from 2 to 7 years, sexual abuse from 1.5 to 9 years, and IQ and DSM‐IV axis I diagnoses at 7 to 8 years. Trained psychologists interviewed children at 11.8 years to ascertain DSM‐IV BPD symptoms (five or more). Results: Accounting for known confounders, victims of peer bullying had an increased risk of BPD symptoms according to self‐report (OR, 2.82; 95% CI, 2.13–3.72); mother report (OR, 2.43; 95% CI, 1.86–3.16); and teacher report (OR, 1.95; 95% CI, 1.34–2.83). Children who reported being chronically bullied (OR, 5.44; 95% CI, 3.86–7.66) or experienced combined relational and overt victimisation (OR, 7.10; 95% CI, 4.79–10.51) had highly increased odds of developing BPD symptoms. Children exposed to chronic victimisation according to mother report were also at heightened risk of developing BPD symptoms (OR, 3.24; 95% CI, 2.24–4.68). Conclusions: Intentional harm inflicted by peers is a precursor or marker on the trajectory towards the development of BPD symptoms in childhood. Clinicians should be adequately trained to deal with, and ask users of mental health services routinely about, adverse experiences with peers.     

Relating intimate partner violence to heath-care utilisation and injuries among Pacific children in Auckland: The Pacific Islands Families Study

Aim:   Despite well-known emotional and behavioural sequela, few studies investigate health-care utilisation and injury impacts of children exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV). This study examines the association between mothers' IPV experience and general practitioner (GP) and hospital presentations by their children within the first 6 years of life.
Methods:   In 2000, a cohort of Pacific infants born in Auckland was established. At 6 weeks, 2 years and 6 years post-partum, maternal home interviews were conducted and IPV experience elicited using the Conflict Tactic Scale, together with reports of children's GP and hospital visitations.
Results:   At 6 weeks, 2 years and 6 years, 1098, 921 and 799 participating mothers were in intimate relationships. Severe physical IPV was reported by 22.1, 23.0 and 7.1% of mothers, respectively, and minor IPV was reported by another 18.7, 16.9 and 6.1%, respectively. Compared with children without maternal physical IPV exposure, children of mothers disclosing severe physical IPV were 1.19 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.08–1.31) times as likely to visit GPs, and children of mothers disclosing minor physical IPV were 1.13 (95% CI: 1.02–1.25) times as likely to visit GPs, after adjusting for socio-demographic, maternal mental health and other confounding factors. No significant association was found between maternal IPV and children's hospital visits, or GP or hospital visits for injury.
Conclusions:   IPV is common for many mothers of Pacific children, and is associated with significantly more GP visits for exposed children. Identification of maternal IPV during mothers' and children's GP and hospital visits may help guide services to prevent future presentations to children.