An industry view on advertising and alcohol

The objective of this paper is to present the view of the brewing industry in response to the current discussion on the National Alcohol Policy in Australia. It is presented on behalf of the Australian Associated Brewers and seeks to present a balanced and constructive view on what is undeniably a very important social issue.     

The alcohol advertising ban in Norway: Effects on recorded alcohol sales

In a recent analysis of the effect of the complete advertising ban on alcohol in Norway, I found that the ban led to a decrease in recorded alcohol sales. Jon Nelson offers comments on this study in two regards; my critical comments on his previous study of alcohol advertising bans and the time series analysis in my study. In this response to Nelson, I offer further explanation for my comments on Nelson's previous study and for the appropriateness of the analysis.     

Puberty, hormones, and sex differences in alcohol abuse and dependence

Sex differences in patterns of drinking and rates of alcohol abuse and dependence begin to emerge during the transition from late puberty to young adulthood. Increases in pubertal hormones, including gonadal and stress hormones, are a prominent developmental feature of adolescence and could contribute to the progression of sex differences in alcohol drinking patterns during puberty. This paper reviews experimental and correlational studies of gonadal and stress-related hormone changes and their effects on alcohol drinking and other associated actions of alcohol. Mechanisms are suggested by which reproductive hormones and stress-related hormones may modulate neural circuits within the brain reward system to produce sex differences in alcohol drinking patterns and vulnerability to alcohol abuse and dependence which become apparent during the late pubertal period.     

Effect of television advertising of alcohol on alcohol consumption and intentions to drive

The alcohol consumption of 120 male and female college students was measured as they viewed a 90-min videotape of popular prime-time television programmes. Independent measures were the sex of the student, their drinker classification (light or moderate-heavy) and the number of alcohol advertisements (0, 6, 12) shown during the screening of the television programmes. Dependent measures were the number of drinks consumed, and the intentions of students to drive a motor vehicle after viewing the videotaped programmes. As predicted, males consumed more alcohol than females, and moderate-heavy drinkers consumed more than light drinkers. Male and female students who viewed six alcohol advertisements consumed more alcohol than students shown no alcohol advertisements or 12 alcohol advertisements. Analysis of intentions to drive after viewing the programmes revealed that the number of drinks consumed was not a significant covariate of driving intentions. Rather light drinkers of both sexes were less likely to intend to drive than moderate-heavy drinkers. Males exposed to alcohol advertisements were less likely to intend to drive than males who did not view alcohol advertisements. Different levels of exposure to alcohol advertisements did not influence the driving intentions of college females.     

Gender differences in the relationships among SES, family history of alcohol disorders and alcohol dependence

OBJECTIVE: Potential moderator and mediator roles of several measures of socioeconomic status (SES) were investigated for the relationship between a family history of alcoholism (FH) and alcohol dependence symptoms in adulthood. METHOD: These analyses were performed with a sample of 931 men and 385 women participating in studies at the Alcohol Research Center, University of Michigan. Hierarchical multiple regression equations were used to assess whether SES mediated and moderated relationships between FH and alcohol dependence symptoms. RESULTS: In general, measures of SES (education, occupation, personal and household income) were more important predictors of alcohol dependence symptoms among men, while FH was a stronger predictor among women. In the female sample, measures of personal and household income interacted with family history such that the influence of family history on adult alcohol dependence symptoms was significantly stronger among low income women. Measures of SES and FH were additively related to alcohol dependence symptoms among men. Education partially meditated the relationship between family history and alcohol dependence symptoms among men, indicating that the influence of family history on subsequent alcohol problems among men may be partially due to familial alcoholism's negative effect on educational attainment. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest the influence of FH on alcohol dependence varies according to SES and gender, and point to the usefulness of examining potential moderators and mediators of family history of alcohol use disorders.     

Gender differences in acute psychomotor, cognitive, and pharmacokinetic response to alcohol

This study investigated gender differences in acute response to alcohol. After practicing several cognitive and psychomotor tasks while sober, male (n = 11) and female (n = 13) social drinkers were administered a 0.65 g/kg dose of ethanol. Subjects were tested on both the ascending and descending limbs of the blood alcohol curve on measures of divided attention, short-term memory, body sway, pursuit tracking ability, and subjective level of intoxication. Blood alcohol level (BAL) was sampled frequently throughout the procedure. Females achieved consistently higher BALs than did males throughout, due mainly to higher BALs among women in the middle stage of the menstrual cycle. Women not using birth control medications also attained higher BALs than did males. When gender differences in BALs were controlled statistically, only memory functioning distinguished the groups: males recorded memory functioning more quickly on the descending limb of the blood alcohol curve than did females. Stage of menstrual cycle or use of birth control medications did not influence psychomotor or cognitive performance while women were intoxicated.     

The extent and nature of alcohol advertising on Australian television

Introduction and Aims. Current alcohol guidelines in Australia recommend minimising alcohol consumption, especially among minors. This study investigated (i) the extent to which children and the general population are exposed to television advertisements that endorse alcohol consumption and (ii) the themes used in these advertisements. Design and Methods. A content analysis was conducted on alcohol advertisements aired over two months in major Australian cities. The advertisements were coded according to the products that were promoted, the themes that were employed, and the time of exposure. Advertising placement expenditure was also captured. Results. In total, 2810 alcohol advertisements were aired, representing one in 10 beverage advertisements. Advertisement placement expenditure for alcohol products in the five cities over the two months was $15.8 million. Around half of all alcohol advertisements appeared during children's popular viewing times. The most common themes used were humour, friendship/mateship and value for money. Discussion and Conclusions. Children and adults are regularly exposed to advertisements that depict alcohol consumption as fun, social and inexpensive. Such messages may reinforce existing alcohol-related cultural norms that prevent many Australians from meeting current intake guidelines.[Pettigrew S, Roberts M, Pescud M, Chapman K, Quester P, Miller C. The extent and nature of alcohol advertising on Australian television. Drug Alcohol Rev 2012;31:797-802].     

Effect of television programming and advertising on alcohol consumption in normal drinkers

The drinking behavior of 96 male normal drinking college students was assessed after they viewed a videotape of a popular prime-time television program complete with advertisements. Different versions of the videotape were used to evaluate the effects of a television program with and without alcohol scenes as crossed with the effects of three different types of advertisements (i.e., beer, nonalcoholic beverages and food). After viewing the videotape, the subjects, who were led to believe that they were participating in two separate and unrelated sets of experimental procedures, were asked to perform a taste rating of light beers, which actually provided an unobtrusive measure of their alcohol consumption. The results provided no support for the widely held assumption that drinking scenes in television programs or televised advertisements for alcoholic beverages precipitate increased drinking by viewers. This finding, however, must be considered in the context of the laboratory setting of the study, and thus may not generalize to real-life television viewing. Further research in this area is clearly needed, including an evaluation of the effects of television program content and advertisements on other populations (e.g., alcohol abusers).     

Gender differences in alcohol and other drug use

Scrutinizing alcohol use alone was at one point justified for political, ideological and rational reasons. The rational reasons were based on patterns of use. Thus, one could easily identify the pure alcohol users. The other drug users in conjunction with alcohol were rare and in a minority. This can no longer be said. What seems to remain constant over time is the smaller proportion of female problem drinkers. What has changed is the addition of other drugs, especially legal drugs by women to their alcohol consumption. Such multiple drug use has apparently resulted in a number of overdoses; alcohol-in-combination with other drugs ranking among the top drug used. Since such a higher proportion of these overdoses are found to be accidental it is obvious to some that a public education program and warning labels about the combined usage are very much needed. It is now clear that alcohol has a significantly different effect on women than men and they run a higher risk of alcohol and other drug overdoses at a lower level of consumption. The physiological and possibly psychological basis for this is only beginning to be explored and is a prime area for research. When such knowledge is firmly at hand it may also help to explain the fewer women with drinking problems.     

Content and effects of alcohol advertising: a reply to Strickland

Strickland's criticisms of Atkin and Block's study on alcohol advertising are refuted point by point with quotations from the original study and defense of the methodologies used.     

Comments on Rossow: The alcohol advertising ban in Norway: Effects on recorded alcohol sales

Rossow conducts an interrupted-auto-regressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) analysis of alcohol advertising bans in Norway for the 47-year period from 1960 through 2006. Norway's comprehensive restrictions on alcohol advertising occurred in 1975 and 1977. Rossow uses annual data on recorded alcohol sales (litres of pure alcohol per capita) to determine an ‘immediate and lasting effect’ from the July 1975 ban of about −7%. A lasting effect is not apparent from a plot of the sales data. The sales data are adjusted for changes in real wages and real prices, although the exact method of adjustment and empirical results are not reported, for example, do the wage and price variables have the expected signs? As part of the analysis, Rossow offers two critical comments on my own work in this area. Her comments are incorrect. The purpose of this commentary is to provide a correct reporting of my methods and results. Also, as I have conducted an interrupted-ARIMA analysis and engaged in a dynamic time-series analysis of alcohol advertising, I assess the appropriateness of Rossow's ARIMA analysis for Norway's advertising bans.     

Drug product advertising and prescribing: a review of the evidence.

A review of the effect of advertising drug products in medical journals on the prescribing of drugs is presented. The scope of advertisiig, the content of advertising, the latent effects of advertising, the effects of advertising on prescribing, and the social costs and benefits of advertising are discussed. Advertising for antibiotic and psychotropic drug products is reviewed in some detail. It is concluded that there is inconclusive evidence that the pharmaceutical industry, through journal advertising, is persuading physicians to prescribe drugs too often or unwisely, or both. It is suggested that pharmacists study the information needs of health care practioners and provide good drug information services.     

A frequency and content analysis of alcohol advertising on Brazilian television.

OBJECTIVE: Two studies were conducted with the objective of analyzing the frequency and content of alcoholic beverage advertising on Brazilian television. METHOD: Study 1 presents a frequency analysis based on 84 hours of TV monitoring in which 1,640 commercials and 243 vignettes were recorded between 8:00 PM and 11:00 PM on the two main stations. Study 2 presents a content analysis of 139 alcoholic and 51 nonalcoholic beverage commercials aired in 1992-93, as evaluated by three trained judges. RESULTS: Study 1 showed the relative frequency of alcoholic beverage commercials (4.6%) to be higher than the frequency of other products such as cigarettes, nonalcoholic beverages and medicines, and lower than that of foods and various other items. Frequency of alcoholic "vignettes" (26.6%) was higher than the frequency of all the other product categories. Frequency data were closely matched by marketing investment data for the period. In Study 2, the most frequent themes and appeals present in alcohol commercials were relaxation, national symbolism, conformity, camaraderie and humor. Human models were present in most ads. Product-related themes such as information, quality or tradition were virtually absent, as were messages to drink moderately. However, 7.2% of the alcohol commercials displayed appeals promoting abusive drinking. CONCLUSIONS: The results seem to reflect the minimal regulation of alcohol advertising in Brazil, and a joint effort by health planners, educators, legislators, alcohol industries and advertising agencies is recommended as a necessary step to reduce alcoholic beverage problems in Brazilian society.     

Gender differences in natural recovery from alcohol dependence

OBJECTIVE: Data from epidemiological research reveal that most alcohol dependent individuals recover without professional treatment. Little is known, however, about individuals remitting from alcohol dependence without formal help, and almost no data are available with respect to gender differences in natural recovery. METHOD: Women (n = 38) and men (n = 106) who remitted from alcohol dependence according to DSM-IV without utilization of formal help (treatment or self-help groups) are compared. A standardized interview assessed reasons for not seeking help, and triggering mechanisms and maintenance factors of remission. RESULTS: Compared with male subjects, female subjects, prior to remission, experienced lower extents of social pressure to change drinking behavior, drove less often under the influence of alcohol, revealed less satisfaction with different life domains and reported a higher impact of health problems on the remission process. Female subjects also informed fewer individuals about their former drinking problems. CONCLUSIONS: Female and male natural remitters differ in factors that trigger the process as well as the maintenance of natural remission.     

Individual differences in temptation and responses to alcohol cues.

OBJECTIVE: Research on the Temptation and Restraint Inventory has established that the Temptation factor is associated with greater use of alcohol, more alcohol-related problems, and more severe symptoms of alcohol dependence. However, there is little known about the mechanisms by which Temptation may be associated with these higher levels of alcohol involvement. The present study was designed to examine how individual differences in Temptation are associated with responses to alcohol cues. METHOD: Eighty-nine hazardous drinkers were exposed to the sight and smell of their favorite alcoholic beverage, attempted to control their urges, and then participated in a beer taste test. Subjective experience, alcohol-related cognitive processing, and behavioral responses were assessed in the context of these cues. RESULTS: Hierarchical regression analyses showed that Temptation was associated with stronger urges to drink alcohol, greater difficulty controlling urges, and increased alcohol consumption, even when controlling for alcohol consumption in the past month. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that Temptation has utility for predicting responses to alcohol cues among hazardous drinkers even when the effects of typical drinking patterns are accounted for. Moreover, the results suggest that individuals who exhibit high levels of Temptation may be particularly reactive to anticipatory cues for alcohol consumption.