Nasopharyngeal carriage of meningococcus and meningococcal meningitis in Sokoto, Nigeria

In an attempt to determine the epidemiology of meningococcal diseases in Sokoto, Nigeria, nasopharyngeal carriage of meningococcus was studied among the groups at the greatest risk of the disease, i.e. children and young adults. Of 726 subjects sampled, 45 (6.2%) carried meningococcus. Sixteen (35.6%) of the 45 isolates belonged to serogroup B. Others were as follows: group A, 8 (17.8%), C, 5 (11.1%), D, 1 (2.2%) and non-groupable 11 (24.4%). Clinical cases encountered during the period were caused by serogroups A (5, 62.5%) and C (3, 37.5%). A male:female carriage ratio of 1.2:1 was recorded for the potential epidemic serogroups, A and C (chi2 = 1.0091; p>0.05), while the clinical case ratio for the genders was 1.8:1 (chi = 16.1619; p<0.001). The 5-9-y-old age group carried meningococci more frequently (8.5%) than other age brackets, and also registered the highest incidence (46.5%) of the cases. Closeness of contact with a clinical case increased the carriage of the strain of the case (chi2 = 33.3940; p<0.001). Rural dwellers carried meningococcus more frequently than urban dwellers (chi2 = 9.5591; p<0.05). The season had no consistent influence on carriage rates, even though it significantly influenced the outbreaks of the disease. Mass vaccination with polysaccharide vaccine and improved living conditions appear to be the most practical ways to control meningococcal diseases in Africa.     

儿童细菌性脑膜炎致病菌分布和耐药性及临床特点10年变迁

目的 分析比较儿童细菌性脑膜炎(BM)近10年间在病原菌分布、耐药情况及其临床特点的变化,为临床诊治提供指导.方法 回顾分析10年中我院126例14岁以下BM患儿的临床资料,并将1998年1月至2002年12月的64例设为1组,2003年1月至2007年12月的62例设为2组,比较两组临床特点、病原菌分布及其耐药情况的变迁.结果 2组最常见的致病菌为凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌(17/62,27.4%)和大肠埃希菌(9/62,14.5%),而在1组二者所占比例分别为12/64(18.8%)和5/64(7.8%).耐苯唑西林的凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌2组13/19(68.4%)高于1组2/12(16.7%)(P<0.05).126例中出现抽搐42例,2组11/62(17.7%)低于1组31/64(48.4%,P<0.01);意识障碍16例,2组4/62(6.4%)低于1组12/64(18.8%)(P<0.05);出现并发症37例,2组13/62(21.0%)低于1组24/64(37.5%)(P<0.05);遗留神经系统后遗症34例,2组11/62(17.7%)低于1组23/64(35.9%)(P<0.05);但更改经验治疗2组21例(21/62,33.9%)高于1组7例(7/64,10.9%)(P<0.01).结论 (1)儿童BM病原菌凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌、大肠埃希菌等条件致病菌构成增加.(2)病原菌耐药菌株明显增多,给临床治疗带来困难,应及时调整治疗方案.(3)儿童BM临床重症表现减少,出现并发症、后遗症的比率降低,但治疗不顺利情况增多.     

儿童细菌性脑膜炎100例病原分布及耐药分析

目的了解细菌性脑膜炎(BM)患儿致病菌分布、耐药情况和临床特点。方法回顾性分析2004年3月至2015年3月脑脊液(CSF)培养阳性BM患儿的临床资料,并按年龄分新生儿组(0~28 d)、婴儿组(~1岁)、儿童组(≥1岁),按发病时间分早年组(2004年3月—2010年3月)和近年组(2010年4月—2015年3月),按临床病因分为外伤手术继发感染组和对照组进行比较分析。结果共100例患儿,检出102株病原菌,革兰阳性菌62株(60.8%),革兰阴性菌40株(39.2%)。主要致病菌依次为肺炎链球菌(33株)、大肠埃希菌(22株)、无乳链球菌(10株)。近年组无乳链球菌所占比例为18.8%(9例),高于早年组的1.9%(1例),差异有统计学意义(χ~2=6.406,P=0.011)。外伤手术继发感染组凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌比例高于对照组,差异有统计学意义(χ~2=6.631,P=0.010)。药敏分析发现,对照组中60.0%大肠埃希菌产超广谱β-内酰胺酶(ESBLs),外伤手术继发感染组的唯一1例大肠埃希菌ESBLs阴性。两不同病因组中肺炎链球菌对万古霉素、利奈唑胺均敏感。外伤手术继发感染组肺炎链球菌对青霉素耐药率为66.7%,对照组为45.8%,两组间差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。无乳链球菌均发生在对照组,对青霉素、利奈唑胺均敏感,而万古霉素敏感率仅为70%。新生儿组、婴儿组和儿童组并发症发生率分别为55.0%(22/40)、78.6%(33/42)和33.3%(6/18),差异有统计学意义(χ~2=11.848,P0.05)。三个年龄段最常见的急性期并发症分别为脑室扩张(40.9%)、硬膜下积液(45.5%)、脑积水(40.0%)。治愈35例,好转出院41例,未愈自动出院22例,死亡2例。结论儿童BM病原菌以肺炎链球菌、大肠埃希菌、无乳链球菌为主,近年无乳链球菌感染有所增加,不同年龄组的并发症有所不同。     

Passive exposure to tobacco smoke and bacterial meningitis in children

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether an association exists between passive exposure to tobacco smoke and bacterial meningitis in childhood, in an Australian population. METHODOLOGY: A retrospective, case-controlled telephone survey of the parents of 71 children admitted to the Women's and Children's Hospital, North Adelaide, with bacterial meningitis between 1990 and 1999. RESULTS: The annual incidence of Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) meningitis decreased significantly during the study period (11.0 cases per year 1991-93 and 1.5 cases per year 1994-99, Fisher's exact test; P < 0.001) whilst pneumococcal cases significantly increased (2.3 cases per year 1991-93 and 4.9 cases per year 1994-99, Fisher's exact test; P < 0.001). Although comparable numbers of cases and controls came from smoking families (41% vs 45%), more cases came from bi-parental smoking households (17% vs 8%; odds ratio (OR) = 2.20, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.77-6.24) and cases were more likely to live in households where parents smoked inside (27% vs 13%; OR 2.51, 95% CI 1.05-6.03). In households where parents smoked, children who had had meningitis were significantly more likely to have parents who smoked inside the house, than children who had not had meningitis (66% vs 28%, Fisher's exact test; P = 0.005). CONCLUSION: This study suggests there may be an association between high levels of passive exposure to tobacco smoke and bacterial meningitis in Australian children. A study with larger numbers of affected children which quantifies passive exposure to tobacco smoke is needed to determine the strength of this association.     

Cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone in bacterial and aseptic meningitis

-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (-MSH) has potent anti-inflammatory effects in several experimental models of inflammation. It inhibits both the actions and production of proinflammatory cytokines and neutrophil migration. We investigated whether -MSH in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) increases during the acute stage in patients with bacterial and aseptic meningitis by measuring -MSH in CSF via radioimmunoassay. The -MSH concentrations in CSF from the children with bacterial meningitis who survived (n = 8), those with aseptic meningitis (n = 16), and the control subjects (n = 23) were all below the detection limit. However, CSF -MSH was elevated in four of the five children with bacterial meningitis who had neurological sequelae. We speculate that elevated -MSH levels in CSF during acute bacterial meningitis reflect negative feedback in response to severe inflammation associated with neurological sequelae induced by proinflammatory cytokines. Conclusion: CSF -MSH is elevated in children with severe bacterial meningitis who had neurological sequelae.     

新生儿细菌性脑膜炎87 例临床分析

目的了解新生儿细菌性脑膜炎的病原学、临床特征以及预后特点。方法对收治的87例新生儿细菌性脑膜炎进行回顾性分析。87例患儿根据出生体质量分为≥2500g组(53例)和<2500g组(34例),分析患儿临床特点、脑脊液及血培养结果、并发症等。分别应用Fisher确切概率法、χ2检验、秩和检验进行数据分析。结果两组患儿的病程差异无统计学意义(P=0.196);神经系统症状在≥2500g组患儿更多见,低出生体质量儿表现以腹胀、呼吸暂停、黄疸以及血常规异常为主;脑脊液培养阳性30例(34.5%),其中革兰阳性菌与阴性菌各16、14例,不同体质量患儿的致病菌种类差异无统计学意义(P=0.688),脑脊液培养细菌检出率由高到低依次为肠道细菌(36.7%)、B型链球菌(20.0%)、非B型链球菌(16.7%)、金黄色葡萄球菌(13.3)、脑膜炎双球菌(10.0%);脑脊液细菌培养阳性患儿病死率为23.3%,阴性者为5.3%。统计学分析显示脑脊液细菌培养是否阳性与并发症发生率(P=0.008)及病死率差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论新生儿细菌性脑膜炎并发症发生率较高,低出生体质量儿颅内出血的发生率更高,病死率与出生体质量...     

血前降钙素在儿童细菌性脑膜炎诊断中的应用价值探讨

目的　证实血前降钙素在小儿急性细菌性脑膜炎及病毒性脑炎鉴别诊断中的作用。方法　应用双位点夹心化学免疫荧光法对 6 7例中枢神经系统感染患儿的血浆前降钙素水平进行测定 ,并比较血清C反应蛋白 ,脑脊液白细胞数、蛋白含量对感染病因辅助诊断的价值。结果　 4 5例急性细菌性脑膜炎患儿血浆前降钙素水平明显升高 (4 6 4～ 74 5 0 μg/L) ,2 2例病毒性脑炎的血前降钙素水平仅有轻度升高 (0 10～ 1 2 2 μg/L) ,P <0 0 0 0 1。而血清C反应蛋白 ,脑脊液白细胞数及蛋白含量在急性细菌性脑膜炎及病毒性脑炎中有重叠。结论　血前降钙素是鉴别儿童急性细菌性脑膜炎及病毒性脑炎的有效指标     

儿童细菌性脑膜炎病原学及耐药性分析

目的了解广州地区儿童细菌性脑膜炎的病原菌分布特点及其耐药状况,为临床进行及时有效治疗提供实验室依据。方法回顾分析2005年1月—2009年12月广州妇女儿童医疗中心细菌性脑膜炎病例的脑脊液病原菌分离培养结果及其药敏试验情况。结果 5年来共从细菌性脑膜炎患儿的脑脊液标本中检出病原菌335株,其中革兰阳性菌215株(64.18%),革兰阴性菌109株(32.54%),真菌11株(3.28%)。主要是凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌(115株,占34.33%)和肺炎链球菌(81株,占24.18%)。新生儿及婴儿早期的病原菌主要是凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌。耐甲氧西林凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌发生率达55.65%。葡萄球菌对青霉素、红霉素、克林霉素耐药率超过70%,对万古霉素和利奈唑烷敏感;肺炎链球菌对青霉素耐药率为8.64%,对红霉素和克林霉素耐药率较高(>60%);革兰阴性杆菌对亚胺培南、头孢哌酮/舒巴坦及阿米卡星敏感率较高,但大肠埃希菌和肺炎克雷伯菌超广谱β内酰胺酶发生率为22.86%和27.59%。结论儿童细菌性脑膜炎主要病原菌是凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌和肺炎链球菌,早期准确的病原学诊断和及时采用敏感的抗菌药物治疗是降低后遗症发生率和病死率的重...     

儿童细菌性脑膜炎95例病原菌分布和预后分析

目的了解儿童细菌性脑膜炎(BM)病原菌分布、细菌耐药性、临床特征和预后。方法回顾分析2011年1月至2015年7月期间住院治疗的病原体明确的BM患儿的临床资料。按出院时结局将患儿分为结局良好和结局不良组。分析比较各组患儿的病原菌分布、细菌耐药性、临床特征及预后。结果共纳入95例病原体明确的BM患儿,其中69例(72.6%)为革兰阳性菌,以肺炎链球菌(43例,45.3%)占首位;26例为革兰阴性菌(27.4%),以大肠埃希菌(13例,13.7%)占首位。肺炎链球菌和大肠埃希菌对青霉素的耐药率均超过了50%。BM患儿神经系统并发症包括硬膜下积液、脑积水、脑实质损伤,以及听力和视力损伤等。多元logistic回归分析显示,意识障碍、昏迷、脑脊液葡萄糖水平低下是BM患儿出院时不良结局的独立危险因素。结论儿童BM的病原体以肺炎链球菌和大肠埃希菌为主,对青霉素的耐药率高。BM患儿可出现不同程度的神经系统后遗症,意识改变和异常以及脑脊液葡萄糖水平低下提示患儿出院时不良结局。     

Functional and behavioral outcome of bacterial meningitis in school‐aged survivors

Background: Bacterial meningitis is a serious infection with high morbidity and a significant risk for neurological and functional sequelae. The purpose of this study was to assess children and teenagers with a history of bacterial meningitis for functional and behavioral problems. Methods: Thirty children and teenagers who suffered bacterial meningitis beyond the age of 6 months were compared against 30 healthy controls for functional and behavioral problems. Both groups were assessed using the Child Behavior Checklist by Achenbach for abilities and behavioral problems. Results: No significant difference was found between the two groups. Conclusion: School‐aged survivors of bacterial meningitis beyond the first 6 months of life have a very good prognosis with regards to competence and behavior.     

Pattern and antibiotic susceptibility of bacteria in pyogenic meningitis in a children's emergency room population in Maiduguri, Nigeria, 1988–1992

From January 1988 to November 1992, 107 (3.5%) of 3074 postneonatal children admitted to the Children's Emergency Room, University of Maiduguri Tcaching Hospital, Nigeria. had sporadic pyogenic meningitis; 66 (61.7%) were aged ≤12 months. Streptococcus pneunioniue. Neisseria meningitidis and Huemophilus influenae together were responsiblc for 77.3% (58) of 75 culture-proven cases, 13.4% (10) had Enterobactcriaceae, 5.3%) (4) had Stuphylococcus aureus and 4% (3) untyped α-haemolytic streptococci. Fifty percent of 62 bacteria were resistant to ampicillin, 47.2% of 36 to penicillin and 10.7% of 56 to chloramphenicol; none of 21 bacteria was simultaneously resistant to all three antibiotics. Up until 1992. we havc encountered treatment failure with a regimen containing chloramphenicol in only 2 of 53 patients; the 2 patients had coliform meningitis. Nun-meningococcal bacteria are an important cause of sporadic pyogenic meningitis in sub-Saharan Nigeria and chloramphenicol is the most appropriate initial drug of choice at the present time for the management of sporadic meningitis.     

In vitro antibiotic sensitivity pattern of common bacterial isolates from cases of acute bacterial meningitis with special reference to ceftriaxone

Ceftriaxone (RO 13-9904) has only recently been introduced in Benghazi and many parts of the word. We determined itsin vitro antibacterial activity against the primary aetiological agents of childhood meningitis in Benghazi, that included eighteen (23.3%) strains ofH. influenzas, 17 (22.1%) ofStr. pneumoniae and 1 (1.3%) ofN. meningitidis isolated from 77 cases of acute purulent meningitis above the age of neonatal period. All strains ofH. influenzae. Str. pneumoniae andN. meningitidis were sensitive to ceftriaxone and showed wide zones of inhibition by the disc diffusion technique of Kirby-Bauer. Ampicillin and chloramphenicol resistance was observed forH. influenzae (23% and 11% respectively), andStr. pneumoniae (12% and 0% respectively), in addition, 18% of strains ofStr. pneumoniae showed resistance to penicillin. The broad spectrum activity of ceftriaxone has been confirmed for our locality and this finding, together with its exceptionally long half-life, excellent penetration into the C.S.F. and ease of administration (single daily dose) warrants it as the drug of choice in empherical treatment of cases of acute bacterial meningitis in children in Benghazi and in cases where resistance to ampicillin and chloramphenicol are found on subsequent testing.     

病原菌明确的细菌性脑膜炎146例临床及病原学分析

目的 分析细菌性脑膜炎患儿临床表现和病原特点,为临床诊治提供帮助。方法 收集复旦大学附属儿科医院2001年1月至2012年12月病原菌诊断明确的细菌性脑膜炎住院患儿,采集临床表现、辅助检查、并发症、病原菌种类和耐药情况等资料,分为0~28 d（新生儿组）,~1岁、~3岁和>3岁组进行描述分析。结果 146例细菌性脑膜炎患儿进入分析,新生儿组58例,~1岁组36例,~3岁组20例,>3岁组32例。①新生儿组发热、呕吐和脑膜刺激征的发生率较低,>3岁组伴有颅面、脊柱解剖畸形50%（16/32）。②革兰阳性菌占54.8%（80株）,以凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌（33株）、肠球菌（19株）和肺炎链球菌（12株）为主;革兰阴性菌占45.2%（66株）,以大肠埃希菌（30株）和鲍氏不动杆菌（10株）为主。③革兰阳性菌对万古霉素和利奈唑胺均敏感,革兰阴性菌除3/10株鲍氏不动杆菌和1/3株铜绿假单胞菌对美罗培南耐药外,余均敏感;大肠埃希菌、克雷伯菌和阴沟肠杆菌产超广谱β内酰胺酶阳性率分别达到66.7%、60.0%和100%。④63例（43.2%）出现急性期并发症,以硬膜下积液（26例）、脑积水（20例）和局部神经损害（13例）最常见;出现并发症主要病原菌为大肠埃希菌(15/30)、凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌（14/33）、肺炎链球菌（6/12）和鲍氏不动杆菌(6/10)。⑤出院结局：死亡或放弃治疗31例（21.2%）,其中肺炎链球菌性脑膜炎为5/12例（41.7%）。结论 细菌性脑膜炎新生儿临床表现多不典型,>3岁患儿应关注神经系统相关解剖结构缺陷的可能。可根据病原菌分布特点和药敏结果选用敏感抗生素。肺炎链球菌性脑膜炎患儿预后可能不良。     

Predictors of long term neurological outcome in bacterial meningitis

Objective To study the long-term neurological and developmental outcome and the clinical and laboratory predictors of sequelae in children with acute bacterial meningitis (ABM). Methods Detailed clinical and demographic data was retrieved from the medical records of study children. Subsequently they were followed up for a minimum of 12 months after discharge for development, neurological and hearing assessment. All sequelae were identified and divided into minor or major. For analysis data was divided into 2 groups those with sequelae and without sequelae at follow-up. Statistical analysis was done using SPSS version 10.00 and Epi Info version 2000. Results 61 boys and 19 girls, a mean age of 31.4±41.9 months at the time of ABM, were included in the study. Of these 62.5% children were infants. Mean age at follow-up was 58.6 ± 47.2 months. Sequelae were observed in 32 (40%) children (8 (10%) minor and 24 (30%) major). Mean social quotient at follow-up was 92.8 ± 32.6. Developmentally 22 (37.9%) children were normal and 20 (34.5%) had global delay. Seizures (P=0.015), cranial nerve palsy (P=0.0065), abnormal deep tendon reflexes (P=0.002), Glasgow coma scale score (GCS) < 8 (P = 0.044) at admission, a CSF culture positive for bacteria and abnormal findings on ultrasonography or computed tomography of head at admission had significant association with sequelae at follow-up. All children (7/7) who had infarct on CT scan (P=0.001) and 12 (80%) of 15 patients who had hydrocephalus (OR-9.0, 95% Cl-2.03-45.6, P=0.001) diagnosed on CT scan developed severe sequelae. On multiple regressions GCS score <8, presence of cranial nerve palsy and abnormal deep tendon reflexes were independent predictors of sequelae. Conclusion Neurological and audiological sequelae and global developmental delay may be seen in about one third of survivors of bacterial meningitis. GCS score <8, presence of infarct or cranial nerve palsy, or hydrocephalous on CT/ultrasound at admission may help in identification of children most likely to need long term follow up and rehabilitation.     

儿童化脓性脑膜炎不良预后危险因素探讨

目的探讨影响化脓性脑膜炎不良预后的危险因素。方法对2007年1月—2008年12月在北京儿童医院感染病房临床诊断的化脓性脑膜炎148例患儿进行系统回顾分析,采用t检验和卡方检验及Logistic回归分析方法,根据Glasgow临床结局评分标准比较预后良好组与预后不良组在病史、临床表现、并发症、辅助检查、治疗等方面的异同。结果发热、精神反应差、抽搐是化脓性脑膜炎患儿最常见的临床表现,单变量回归分析提示住院时间、瞳孔对光反射减弱、瞳孔不等大、血白细胞计数<4×109/L或>12×109/L、脑脊液糖≤1.5 mmol/L、脑脊液蛋白>1 000 mg/L、血钠<135 mmol/L和血钙在两组间差异有统计学意义;而年龄、性别、抗生素应用、激素治疗等与预后无明显相关。多变量分析发现,住院时间、瞳孔不等大、入院时末梢血白细胞计数、脑脊液糖和蛋白水平、血钠对预后有指示意义。结论影响化脓性脑膜炎不良预后的危险因素是瞳孔不等大、入院时白细胞计数<4×109/L或>12×109/L、脑脊液糖≤1.5 mmol/L、脑脊液蛋白>1 000 mg/L、血钠<135 mmol/L。对有预后不良因素者进行更为积极有效的治疗可以在一定...     

Interleukin-8 levels in children with bacterial,tuberculous and aseptic meningitis

Objective : Interleukin-8 (IL-8) is produced in monocytes and vascular endothelial cells in response to stimulation with bacteria or lipopolysaccharides, and is released from these cells into blood stream or tissue fluid.Methods Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of interleukin-8 in 56 children with nonbacterial, bacterial and tuberculous meningitis (TBM), and in 15 control subjects were analyzed to evaluate the involvement of this cytokine in the pathogenesis acute bacterial meningitis and their discriminative value between different etiologies of meningitis. The kinetics of IL-8 concentrations during the course of bacterial meningitis was also evaluated in patients. IL-8 levels were significantly higher in bacterial and TBM than in aseptic meningitis and in control subjects (p<0.0001).Results: There was no difference in the levels of IL-8 between the non-bacterial meningitis and control groups. The analysis of the kinetics of production of IL-8 in patients with bacterial meningitis showed that the SSF concentrations of this cytokine decreased to undetectable values in recovery stage. Conversely in patients with TBM the concentrations of IL-8 were elevated in two weeks after beginning the specific treatment.Conclusion : The results suggest that determining IL-8 levels may be useful in the differential diagnosis.     

Childhood bacterial meningitis in Pondicherry, South India

Objective: To identify causative bacteria from cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of children with miningits and analyse various clinical and laboratory parameters.Methods: Over a 20 month period, September 1994 to April 1996, one hundred episodes of acute bacterial meningitis in children aged 1 month–12 years were studied in a tertiary urban hospital in South India. Organisms were isolated from the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in 35% of cases. Among infants and children, the two major pathogens wereH. influenzae (17%) andS.pneumoniae (12%).Results: The illness at presentation was mild in 13% and severe in 36% of cases. The association of subdural effusion in children with Salmonella Gp B meningitis merits attention. The overall case fatality rate was 25%.S.pneumoniae had a higher case fatality rate than Salmonella Gp B andH.influenzae (50% vs 17% vs 12%). All the three infants below 3 months of age withS.pneumoniae meningitis died. On analysis of selected clinical and laboratory features by discriminant analysis, CSF culture was the significant (P=0.02) variable in relation to outcome. In pneumococcal meningitis, CSF WBC count was a highly significant variable in relation to outcome (Wilk’s Lambda 0.15, F=24.64, P=0.0002).Conclusion: Prevention of infections due toH.influenzae andS.pneumoniae should be given higher priority.