The effects of exercise training on mood and perceived coping ability in anxious adults from the general population

A comparison was carried out of the psychological effects of a moderate aerobic training programme (n = 24) and an attention-placebo strength and flexibility training programme (n = 23) in previously inactive anxious adults from the general population. Training consisted of one supervised and three unsupervised sessions per week for 10 weeks. Effects were assessed with the Profile of Mood States, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and questionnaires indexing perceived coping ability. Seven participants dropped out of each condition during the training period. Expectations of benefit assessed pre-training, and satisfaction assessed post-training, did not differ between conditions. The moderate exercise programme led to significant improvements in aerobic fitness, and was associated with significantly greater reductions in tension-anxiety, depression and other moods than the attention-placebo condition, together with increases in perceived ability to cope with stress. Psychological responses were not correlated with changes in fitness assessed with bicycle ergometry or the 12 min walk/run test. These effects were maintained on 3 month follow up.     

The effects of aerobic and anaerobic training on fitness, blood pressure, and psychological stress and well-being

To determine whether fitness alters psychological and physiological indices of well-being, male police officers were assigned to either an aerobic or anaerobic training condition or to a no treatment control group. The training groups met three times per week in 45 min sessions aimed at improving either cardiovascular endurance or muscle strength. Aerobic fitness level, heart rate, blood pressure and self-report of stress and well-being were measured prior to and following 10 weeks of training. Post-training fitness measures confirmed the effectiveness of training and between group differences for physiological and self-report measures were found. Subjects undergoing aerobic training evinced larger changes on the self-report measures of well-being and stress than the anaerobic trainers and both groups showed significant improvement when compared to controls. This experiment provides support for the hypothesis that exercise, and in particular aerobic exercise, has positive effects of well-being. It is suggested that future research might usefully explore the particular contribution of different aspects of the training situation to these effects.     

EMG biofeedback training,transfer of training,and coping with stress

In phase one, 56 subjects either did (biofeedback training) or did not (no biofeedback training) receive frontal EMG biofeedback training, and either were (stress) or were not (no stress) threatened with electric shocks during the training periods. Results indicated that the threat of shock was effective in increasing arousal (as measured by self-report and multiple physiological indices), and that the biofeedback training provided under both stressful and non-stressful conditions was effective in reducing frontal EMG levels and the extent to which subjects worried about the shock, but was not effective in reducing physiological arousal, self-report of arousal, or the perceived painfulness of the shock. In phase two, the subjects from phase one were exposed to another threat of shock situation, but no additional biofeedback was provided. Fourteen additional subjects were not threatened with electric shock and served as a control group. Results indicated that the threat of shock was again effective in increasing arousal, and that subjects who had previously received biofeedback training under either stressful or non-stressful conditions were able to reduce their levels of frontal EMG and self-report of arousal, but not their levels of physiological arousal. The results provide evidence that EMG biofeedback training can reduce EMG levels under stressful as well as non-stressful conditions, and that this effect will transfer to a stressful non-training situation. However, the fact that the EMG reductions were generally not accompanied by reductions in arousal suggests that EMG biofeedback may have limited effectiveness as a general procedure for coping with stress.     

Physical fitness level and autonomic reactivity to psychosocial stress

Two studies explored the influence of aerobic fitness level on autonomic reactivity to psychosocial stress. Experiment 1 employed a correlational, repeated measures design. A total of 45 men who were physically trained, untrained, or training were tested at three-week intervals over nine weeks. The measure of autonomic reactivity was lability in electrodermal activity during two speeded mental tasks designed to induce psychosocial stress. In the initial test session, trained subjects showed faster autonomic recovery from this stress than did untrained or training subjects; in subsequent test sessions involving the repeated administration of the same tasks, the three groups were indistinguishable. Experiment 2 employed 60 subjects who were randomly assigned to 10-week aerobic exercise, meditation, or music appreciation programs. In each session, two psychosocial stressors selected from a battery of six tasks were counterbalanced across treatments and sessions. Over the course of the study, participants in the exercise program improved significantly in physical fitness and also showed faster recovery in the electrodermal response. This quicker autonomic recovery may allow the aerobically fit to cope more effectively with emotional stress.     

The effects of exercise training on mental well-being in the normal population: a controlled trial

This study was designed to compare the effects of two aerobic training programmes of differing intensities on mood and mental well-being with those of a credible attention-placebo condition. One hundred and nine sedentary adult volunteers from the local population were assigned to four conditions: high intensity aerobic training, moderate intensity aerobic training, attention-placebo and waiting list. Training was carried out over a 10 week period. Subjects were assessed before and after training with psychological measures and the 12 min walk-run test, and follow-up evaluations were undertaken after 3 months. Ninety-four subjects began the programme and the adherence rate averaged 80%, with no significant differences in number of drop-outs between conditions. Appropriate changes in estimated maximum oxygen consumption were observed in the three active conditions with the 12 min walk-run test. Psychological benefits were seen with the moderate exercise condition but not in the high exercise or attention-placebo conditions. These effects were manifest immediately after training on measures of tension/anxiety and confusion, and at follow-up on measures of perceived coping ability. The mechanisms underlying this pattern of results are discussed and the relative importance for health of vigorous activity and physical fitness is considered.     

Effect of a six-month aerobic exercise training program on cardiovascular responsivity in healthy middle-aged adults.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of a six month aerobic exercise training regimen on cardiovascular responsivity to mental arithmetic in healthy middle-aged men and women. Subjects were randomly assigned to a moderate intensity exercise intervention or to an assessment-only control group. Before and after the intervention subjects' heart rates and blood pressures were measured doing a mental arithmetic task (N = 83). Other physiological and psychosocial measures included the Type A structured interview and a maximal exercise treadmill test. Validated adherence to the exercise regimen exceeded 75% and there were significant increases in aerobic capacity in those subjects receiving exercise training. Exercise did not significantly reduce cardiovascular responsivity to the stress task. Type A behavior did not interact with reactivity across exercisers or controls nor was it significantly correlated with adherence. The results are discussed with respect to factors that have been previously reported to potentially influence the exercise/reactivity relationship.     

The HPA axis response to stress in women: effects of aging and fitness

This study tested the hypotheses that aging is associated with greater hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis reactivity to psychological stress, and whether aerobic fitness is associated with a lower HPA axis response to psychological stress. Three groups, consisting of young-unfit women (27.9+/-2.5 yr, n=10), older-unfit women (66.3+/-1.4 yr, n=14), and older-fit women (66.6+/-2.0 yr, n=12), underwent the Matt Stress Reactivity Protocol (MSRP). The MSRP is a stress test battery that combines mental challenges, a physical challenge, and a psychosocial stressor. Definition of fitness was based on maximal oxygen consumption (VO(2max)) where unfit was defined as having VO(2max)average for the respective age group. The MSRP elicited increases in heart rate, blood pressure, ACTH, and cortisol (P<0.001). The older-unfit women had significantly greater cortisol responses to the challenge than both the young-unfit and the older-fit women (P<0.05), who did not differ from each other. ACTH levels were significantly higher in the older-unfit women at baseline and throughout the trial, compared to both young-unfit and the older-fit (P<0.01). The ACTH response was not different between any of the groups. The young-unfit women had greater heart rate responses than the older-unfit (P<0.01), while the latter had greater systolic blood pressure responses (P<0.01). There were no significant differences between the older-unfit and older-fit in terms of heart rate or blood pressure responses. Our result shows that among unfit women, aging is associated with greater HPA axis reactivity to psychological stress, and that higher aerobic fitness among older women can attenuate these age-related changes as indicated by a blunted cortisol response to psychological stress. These findings suggest that exercise training may be an effective way of modifying some of the neuroendocrine changes associated with aging.     

Prophylactic effect of aerobic fitness on cardiovascular arousal among individuals with a family history of hypertension

Among normotensive individuals, a family history of essential hypertension is generally associated with elevated levels of cardiovascular arousal during stress. In contrast, aerobic fitness is associated with lowered levels of cardiovascular arousal during stress. It was therefore hypothesized that during psychosocial stress, subjects with a family history of hypertension who were aerobically fit would respond like subjects who did not have a family history of hypertension, and both of those groups would show less arousal than subjects with a family history of hypertension who were not aerobically fit. The predicted patterning of responses was found with heart rate, diastolic blood pressure and systolic blood pressure. The results are discussed in terms of the prophylactic effects of fitness for individuals with a family history of hypertension.     

Exercise intensity and reduction in neurotic symptoms. A controlled follow-up study

The psychological benefits of walking and jogging were compared in 52 symptomatic neurotics over an 8-week training period and subsequent 6-month follow-up. Both groups showed marked reduction of anxiety, depression and global symptoms. Joggers had greater aerobic gain, but no greater psychologic benefit. Significantly larger numbers of joggers dropped out of the study. There was no relationship between aerobic gain and reduction of symptoms at the end of the program. However, at 6 months' follow-up, those with greater aerobic fitness had much lower anxiety levels. Changes in exercise frequency and aerobic capacity were also maintained at follow-up. Depression levels were not associated with aerobic fitness at follow-up. High initial exercise intensity appears to inhibit the forming of new exercise habits.     

Impact of exercise training on plasma adrenocorticotropin response to a well-learned vigilance task

Plasma adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH), cortisol, heart rate, self-reported state anxiety and total reaction time responses in physically active (n=8) and sedentary (n=11) middle-aged men were compared during performance of a well-learned, psychologically challenging task. The groups were similar in age (active: 39.9±8.4 yr vs. sedentary: 44.4±7.2 yr) and trait anxiety (29.4±5.2 vs. 34.5±12.6), but they had different maximal oxygen consumption relative to lean body weight (68.6±7.1 vs. 44.7±4.6 ml · kg⁻¹ · min⁻¹). During performance of the psychological protocol, the total group had significant increases in heart rate and state anxiety, whereas both ACTH and cortisol remained near baseline levels. ACTH and cortisol were not different between the groups. The sedentary group exercise trained for 4 mo, which resulted in an 18% improvement in maximal aerobic capacity ( O₂ max). Exercise intervention did not significantly alter the neuroendocrine response compared to pre-training values or compared to a corresponding control group. These findings suggest that enhanced cardiovascular fitness resulting from exercise training does not affect anterior pituitary-adrenocortical activity during performance of a practiced vigilance task.     

Does improving mood in depressed patients alter factors that may affect cardiovascular disease risk?

To determine if improvement in mood would ameliorate autonomic dysregulation, HPA dysfunction, typical risk factors and C-reactive protein in depressed patients with elevated cardiovascular disease risk (CVD), 48 depressed participants with elevated cardiovascular risk factors were randomized to a cognitive behavioral intervention (CBT) or a waiting list control (WLC) condition. Twenty non-depressed age and risk-matched controls were also recruited. Traditional risk factors (e.g., lipids, blood pressure) and C-reactive protein were assessed pre- and post-treatment six months later. Subjects also underwent a psychophysiological stress test while cardiovascular physiology was measured. Salivary cortisol was measured during the day and during the psychological stress test. At post-treatment, the CBT subjects were significantly less depressed than WLC subjects. There was no significant difference in change scores on any of the traditional risk factors or C-reactive protein, cortisol measures, or cardiovascular physiology, except for triglyceride levels and heart rate, which were significantly lower in treatment compared to control subjects. The normal controls exhibited no change in the variables measured during the same time. A significant improvement in mood may have little impact on most traditional or atypical risk factors, cortisol or cardiophysiology.     

Short-term aerobic training response in chronic myopathies.

We have previously demonstrated that patients with mitochondrial myopathies can benefit from short-term aerobic exercise training. In this study, we compared the responses to short-term aerobic training of patients with mitochondrial myopathies, patients with nonmetabolic myopathies, and sedentary normal subjects. Training consisted of 8 weeks of treadmill exercise at 70% to 85% of estimated maximum heart rate reserve. All groups showed significant improvements in estimated aerobic capacity as well as heart rate and blood lactate at submaximal exercise intensities. The increase in estimated aerobic capacity was greater in the mitochondrial myopathy patients than in the other two groups. Phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy demonstrated increased oxidative capacity of muscle in patients with mitochondrial myopathies in response to this training but not in patients with other, nonmetabolic myopathies or sedentary control subjects. A self-assessed measurement of functional status (SF-36) suggested improved quality of life associated with the training. This study demonstrates that short-term aerobic training at low intensity can benefit patients with nonmetabolic myopathies but to a lesser extent than patients with mitochondrial myopathies.     

Effects of an aerobic rowing training regimen in young adults with Down syndrome

Effects of a rowing exercise regimen on cardiovascular fitness of young adults with Down syndrome were examined. Sixteen young males with trisomy 21 (mean age 21.3, mean IQ 38.8) were randomly assigned to either a control or exercise group. All participants performed pre- and posttraining graded exercise tests on a treadmill and rowing ergometer. The exercise group performed a 16-week rowing ergometry training regimen. Following training, no changes in cardiovascular fitness had occurred for this group. However, they reached significantly higher levels of work performance for both treadmill and rowing ergometer posttraining tests. Results show that an exercise training regimen did not improve the cardiovascular fitness of young adults with Down syndrome but did improve exercise endurance and work capacity.     

Reducing heart rate reactivity to stress with feedback. Generalization across task and time.

Heart rate (HR) reactions to two behavioral stressors (videogame and mental arithmetic) were measured in 8 experimental subjects who received biofeedback training and 8 matched control subjects during three assessment periods: pretraining, posttraining, and one-week follow-up. Experimental subjects exhibited significant reductions in HR following a training session in which they received ongoing HR feedback while playing a videogame. Control subjects, who played the same number of videogames without HR feedback, showed smaller HR reductions. During the training session, all subjects were instructed to reduce HR while maximizing game performance. In comparison to controls, experimental subjects (a) maintained lower HRs during videogame presentations after a one-week period and (b) generalized these HR reductions to the mental arithmetic challenge at follow-up. Performance on the videogame declined from posttraining to follow-up for experimental subjects but not for control subjects. No group difference in mental arithmetic performance was observed.     

Aerobic exercise training in stroke survivors

Functional aerobic capacity among persons with stroke is severely compromised and may limit their full participation in community living. Even though aerobic conditioning can be potentially valuable to persons with stroke in reducing the risk of recurrent morbid events and improving overall quality of life, there is limited information on the specific dose of aerobic exercise (i.e., frequency, intensity, duration, and modality) that may achieve the most desirable health outcomes under the safest conditions in this population. Because of the many comorbidities associated with stroke (i.e., hypertension, heart disease, obesity, depression), specific recommendations for prescribing aerobic exercise must become more precise and be subsequently added to the treatment regimen for this large and diverse population. Future research must address optimal aerobic training programs necessary for reductions in cardiovascular risk factors and gains in functional status in stroke patients.     

Individual responses to aerobic exercise: the role of the autonomic nervous system

It is well established that regular aerobic exercise training reduces all-cause mortality and improves a number of health outcomes. However, a marked heterogeneity in the training-induced changes, e.g. in terms of aerobic fitness, has been observed in healthy human subjects, even with highly standardized training programs. Mean improvements in aerobic fitness, expressed as maximal oxygen consumption, have been about 10-15% of the baseline values, but the training-induced changes have ranged from almost none to a 40% increase. The exact nature of the mechanisms responsible for this heterogeneity in response to regular aerobic exercise is not well known. In this review, we consider evidence of the association between the autonomic nervous system (ANS), aerobic fitness and aerobic training-induced changes in fitness. Results of recent studies support the hypothesis that assessment of ANS functioning includes important information concerning acute and chronic physiological processes before, during and after aerobic exercise training stimulus. Moreover, we show that daily assessment of ANS activity could serve as an indicator of appropriate physiological condition for aerobic training.     

An analogue trial of inoculation/resilience training for emergency services personnel: proof of concept

Background and objectivesThis analogue study served as a proof of concept trial for inoculation/resilience training with emergency services personnel.MethodsEighty people from the general community participated in a randomized controlled trial of inoculation training to increase resilience in the mitigation of stress and trauma-type symptomatology following a stressful video of paramedics attending the scene of a car accident. Participants were randomly allocated to one of two conditions: (a) resilience training, where the participants received strategies aimed at reducing the negative effects of the event; or (b) a control ‘pragmatic training’ condition, where participants received practical training about what to do in the event of a car accident. A week later the full video was shown. All participants were assessed one month later.ResultsUnlike with past studies which tested psychological debriefing, analyses revealed that inoculation/resilience training did not appear to have deleterious effects on psychological distress measures or memory performance. Participants who received the resilience training displayed improvements in negative affect (notable trends in depression and stress levels) suggesting a more general positive result from the intervention than normal ‘pragmatic training’.LimitationsThis was an analogue trial and a full field trial is warranted.ConclusionsWith organisations wishing to engage in resilience training, this analogue study suggests that inoculation training at least does no harm and may be beneficial. It is, therefore, a viable option for emergency services personnel during pre-deployment training.     

Guiding research and practice: a conceptual model for aerobic exercise training in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease is a global, epidemic problem affecting mainly older adults with tremendous social and financial burdens. Older adults with Alzheimer's disease showed reduced physical activity and cognitive changes that are probably amenable to aerobic exercise training. The purpose of this paper is to develop a conceptual model to guide future aerobic exercise research and practice by synthesizing the current state of the science on aerobic exercise training in older adults with AD. The literature review found 12 qualified studies that met the eligibility criteria for inclusion in this review and revealed six constructs (aerobic exercise training, physical fitness, physical performance, activities of daily living limitations, cognition, and psychological and behavioral symptoms), which composed the Functional Impact of aerobic exercise Training in Alzheimer's disease (FIT-AD) model. The state of science on each construct in older adults with Alzheimer's disease is reviewed and summarized. The emerging evidence suggests that aerobic exercise training might positively impacts all five other constructs. The implications of the FIT-AD model for future research and practice are discussed highlighted.     

Yoga and Psychophysiological Determinants of Cardiovascular Health: Comparing Yoga Practitioners,Runners, and Sedentary Individuals

Background

The evidence of cardiovascular benefits of yoga is promising, but lacks demonstrations of specificity compared to other interventions.

Purpose

The present cross-sectional study examined cardiovascular health markers in long-term practitioners of yoga (yogis), runners, and sedentary individuals.

Methods

We compared physiological, psychological, and lifestyle variables associated with cardiovascular health across groups.

Results

Yogis (n?=?47) and runners (n?=?46) showed favorable profiles compared to sedentary individuals (n?=?52) on heart rate, heart rate variability, depression, perceived stress, and cigarette smoking. Runners and male yogis showed superior aerobic fitness compared to the sedentary group. Runners reported greater social support compared to other groups. Yogis demonstrated a lower respiration rate compared to sedentary individuals and were more likely to refrain from eating meat compared to other groups.

Conclusions

Yogis and runners demonstrated several cardiovascular health advantages over sedentary individuals. Our findings raise the possibility that yoga may improve aerobic fitness in men but not women.     

Plasma neuropeptide-Y concentrations in humans exposed to military survival training.

BACKGROUND: Neuropeptide-Y (NPY) is present in extensive neuronal systems of the brain and is present in high concentrations in cell bodies and terminals in the amygdala. Preclinical studies have shown that injections of NPY into the central nucleus of the amygdala function as a central anxiolytic and buffer against the effects of stress. The objective of this study was to assess plasma NPY immunoreactivity in healthy soldiers participating in high intensity military training at the U.S. Army survival school. The Army survival school provides a means of observing individuals under high levels of physical, environmental, and psychological stress, and consequently is considered a reasonable analogue to stress incurred as a result of war or other catastrophic experiences. METHODS: Plasma levels of NPY were assessed at baseline (prior to initiation of training), and 24 hours after the conclusion of survival training in 49 subjects, and at baseline and during the Prisoner of War (P.O.W.) experience (immediately after exposure to a military interrogation) in 21 additional subjects. RESULTS: Plasma NPY levels were significantly increased compared to baseline following interrogations and were significantly higher in Special Forces soldiers, compared to non-Special Forces soldiers. NPY elicited by interrogation stress was significantly correlated to the subjects' behavior during interrogations and tended to be negatively correlated to symptoms of reported dissociation. Twenty-four hours after the conclusion of survival training, NPY had returned to baseline in Special Forces soldiers, but remained significantly lower than baseline values in non-Special Forces soldiers. NPY was positively correlated with both cortisol and behavioral performance under stress. NPY was negatively related to psychological symptoms of dissociation. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide evidence that uncontrollable stress significantly increases plasma NPY in humans, and when extended, produces a significant depletion of plasma NPY. Stress-induced alterations of plasma NPY were significantly different in Special Forces soldiers compared to non-Special Forces soldiers. These data support the idea that NPY may be involved in the enhanced stress resilience seen in humans.