Skull Flexure as a Contributing Factor in the Mechanism of Injury in the Rat when Exposed to a Shock Wave

The manner in which energy from an explosion is transmitted into the brain is currently a highly debated topic within the blast injury community. This study was conducted to investigate the injury biomechanics causing blast-related neurotrauma in the rat. Biomechanical responses of the rat head under shock wave loading were measured using strain gauges on the skull surface and a fiber optic pressure sensor placed within the cortex. MicroCT imaging techniques were applied to quantify skull bone thickness. The strain gauge results indicated that the response of the rat skull is dependent on the intensity of the incident shock wave; greater intensity shock waves cause greater deflections of the skull. The intracranial pressure (ICP) sensors indicated that the peak pressure developed within the brain was greater than the peak side-on external pressure and correlated with surface strain. The bone plates between the lambda, bregma, and midline sutures are probable regions for the greatest flexure to occur. The data provides evidence that skull flexure is a likely candidate for the development of ICP gradients within the rat brain. This dependency of transmitted stress on particular skull dynamics for a given species should be considered by those investigating blast-related neurotrauma using animal models.     

面部碰撞对行人创伤性脑损伤影响的生物力学研究

为预测和评判行人面部碰撞对创伤性脑损伤机理及生物力学响应,结合计算机断层扫描（CT）和磁共振（MRI）医学成像技术,建立符合中国人体特征的50百分位头颈部几何模型和有限元模型。有限元模型中颅骨与脑之间的相对运动采用切向滑动边界条件,摩擦系数定义为0.2,模拟鼻骨斜碰撞、鼻外侧软骨正面碰撞、牙齿正面碰撞、下颌骨碰撞和颧骨外侧斜碰撞等5种典型面部碰撞交通事故场景,探讨应力波在颅骨和脑内传播路径,得到颅内压力、von Mises等效应力和剪切应力等生物力学响应参数分布规律。结果显示,鼻骨斜碰撞颅内压力峰值为236.7 kPa,von Mises应力为25.97 kPa,超过了大脑耐受阈值;颧骨外侧斜碰撞最大横向剪切应力分别为14.56 kPa和-18.07 kPa,促使脑组织产生了较大的剪切变形,存在严重脑损伤风险。结论表明：面部碰撞的位置和方向是导致面部骨折严重程度的关键因素,面骨骨折的位置决定创伤性脑损伤的部位,面骨骨折都带有一定程度的创伤性脑损伤;头部受到冲击时,面部结构能够吸收大量的冲击能量来保护大脑,降低颅脑损伤的风险。     

1.5岁儿童头部有限元模型的建立及验证

利用1.5岁儿童头部MRI和CT扫描数据,通过医学扫描断层图像三维重构和有限元前处理,建立一个具有高度解剖学细节的1.5岁儿童头部有限元模型并赋予其最新公布的儿童颅骨材料参数。利用这个头部模型重构Loyd开展的儿童尸体头部跌落试验(17个样本),将仿真输出的加速度历程曲线和尸体试验曲线的加速度峰值、脉冲持续时间等进行对比。结果表明,该模型能够反映跌落工况中儿童头部的受载情况,具有良好的生物逼真度。30 cm跌落高度下,枕部撞击时得到最大HIC值357;不同跌落工况的头部颅内压力分析显示,儿童头部遭受撞击时,颅内压的分布满足经典的撞击压-对撞压产生理论;相比前额撞击和枕部撞击,颅顶撞击和侧向顶骨撞击的撞击侧正压力峰值较大,最大值分别为241.6 和157.3 kPa,遭受同侧脑挫裂伤的风险较高;枕部撞击工况下,撞击对侧的负压力峰值大于其他撞击工况,最大值为-74.4 kPa,遭受对侧脑挫裂伤的风险较高。跌落高度增加时,HIC和颅内压力峰值增大,损伤风险随之增加。     

Development of a Metric for Predicting Brain Strain Responses Using Head Kinematics

Diffuse brain injuries are caused by excessive brain deformation generated primarily by rapid rotational head motion. Metrics that describe the severity of brain injury based on head motion often do not represent the governing physics of brain deformation, rendering them ineffective over a broad range of head impact conditions. This study develops a brain injury metric based on the response of a second-order mechanical system, and relates rotational head kinematics to strain-based brain injury metrics: maximum principal strain (MPS) and cumulative strain damage measure (CSDM). This new metric, universal brain injury criterion (UBrIC), is applicable over a broad range of kinematics encountered in automotive crash and sports. Efficacy of UBrIC was demonstrated by comparing it to MPS and CSDM predicted in 1600 head impacts using two different finite element (FE) brain models. Relative to existing metrics, UBrIC had the highest correlation with the FE models, and performed better in most impact conditions. While UBrIC provides a reliable measurement for brain injury assessment in a broad range of head impact conditions, and can inform helmet and countermeasure design, an injury risk function was not incorporated into its current formulation until validated strain-based risk functions can be developed and verified against human injury data.     

头部钝器损伤实验与仿真分析

目的　为了研究头部在钝器作用下的生物力学响应及损伤机理。 方法　利用CT图像数据和MRI图像数据对头部骨骼与内部软组织进行几何重建,然后画分网格,构建颅脑有限元模型。另一方面,对连于躯干的头部标本进行10 m/s的低速冲击,测试冲击部位接触力、顶部应变及冲击的对侧（枕部）加速度。把构建的有限元模型导入MADYMO软件进行相同条件下模拟仿真,从输出模块里输出相应部位的结果。 结果　仿真结果表明模型的头部接触力、顶部应变、对撞侧加速度与头部标本冲击实验测得值能较好吻合。 结论　建立的头部有限元模型及采用的仿真方法可满足头部钝器损伤的仿真研究需要。     

研究颅脑交通伤的有限元模型的建立及验证

建立基于人体解剖学结构的HBM(Human body model)头部三维有限元模型.详细描述了人体头部的主要解剖学结构,模型由头皮、颅骨、硬脑膜、脑脊液、软脑膜、大脑、小脑、脑室、脑干、脑镰和脑幕等组成.采用人体头部碰撞实验数据,比较了实验与仿真中头部的动力学响应和颅内压力分布参数,对头部有限元模型进行了验证.结果表明,该模型具有较好的生物逼真度,可以用来分析研究车辆交通事故中颅脑创伤和损伤机理.     

Development,Validation, and Application of a Parametric Pediatric Head Finite Element Model for Impact Simulations

In this study, a statistical model of cranium geometry for 0- to 3-month-old children was developed by analyzing 11 CT scans using a combination of principal component analysis and multivariate regression analysis. Radial basis function was used to morph the geometry of a baseline child head finite element (FE) model into models with geometries representing a newborn, a 1.5-month-old, and a 3-month-old infant head. These three FE models were used in a parametric study of near-vertex impact conditions to quantify the sensitivity of different material parameters. Finally, model validation was conducted against peak head accelerations in cadaver tests under different impact conditions, and optimization techniques were used to determine the material properties. The results showed that the statistical model of cranium geometry produced realistic cranium size and shape, suture size, and skull/suture thickness, for 0- to 3-month-old children. The three pediatric head models generated by morphing had mesh quality comparable to the baseline model. The elastic modulus of skull had a greater effect on most head impact response measurements than other parameters. Head geometry was a significant factor affecting the maximal principal stress of the skull (p = 0.002) and maximal principal strain of the suture (p = 0.021) after controlling for the skull material. Compared with the newborn head, the 3-month-old head model produced 6.5% higher peak head acceleration, 64.8% higher maximal principal stress, and 66.3% higher strain in the suture. However, in the skull, the 3-month-old model produced 25.7% lower maximal principal stress and 11.5% lower strain than the newborn head. Material properties of the brain had little effects on head acceleration and strain/stress within the skull and suture. Elastic moduli of the skull, suture, dura, and scalp determined using optimization techniques were within reported literature ranges and produced impact response that closely matched those measured in previous cadaver tests. The method developed in this study made it possible to investigate the age effects from geometry changes on pediatric head impact responses. The parametric study demonstrated that it is important to consider the material properties and geometric variations together when estimating pediatric head responses and predicting head injury risks.     

关于头部组织材料性能敏感性对颅内压力响应的研究

应用有限元法 (finiteelementmethod)和试验设计技术 (design of experimentDOE)研究人头部颅骨(skull)、脑脊液 (cerebral spinal fluidCSF)和脑髓 (brain)材料性能的敏感性对颅内因撞击而产生的压力响应。该研究采用头部的有限元模型 ,用三因子、三层次的因子试验设计对影响颅内因撞击而引起的压力的颅骨、脑脊液和脑髓的材料性质的敏感性进行分析。研究结果进一步证实了颅骨、脑脊液、脑髓的材料性能对颅内因撞击而引起的压力的重要影响。本研究为进一步的头部的有限元分析提供了新的见解 ,并提出了对头部组织的材料性能作更进一步的探索。     

Finite element analysis of brain contusion: An indirect impact study

The mechanism of brain contusion has been investigated using a series of three-dimensional (3D) finite element analyses. A head injury model was used to simulate forward and backward rotation around the upper cervical vertebra. Intracranial pressure and shear stress responses were calculated and compared. The results obtained with this model support the predictions of cavitation theory that a pressure gradient develops in the brain during indirect impact. Contrecoup pressure-time histories in the parasagittal plane demonstrated that an indirect impact induced a smaller intracranial pressure (−53.7 kPa for backward rotation, and −65.5 kPa for forward rotation) than that caused by a direct impact. In addition, negative pressures induced by indirect impact to the head were not high enough to form cavitation bubbles, which can damage the brain tissue. Simulations predicted that a decrease in skull deformation had a large effect in reducing the intracranial pressure. However, the areas of high shear stress concentration were consistent with those of clinical observations. The findings of this study suggest that shear strain theory appears to better account for the clinical findings in head injury when the head is subjected to an indirect impact.     

Parametric Comparisons of Intracranial Mechanical Responses from Three Validated Finite Element Models of the Human Head

A number of human head finite element (FE) models have been developed from different research groups over the years to study the mechanisms of traumatic brain injury. These models can vary substantially in model features and parameters, making it important to evaluate whether simulation results from one model are readily comparable with another, and whether response-based injury thresholds established from a specific model can be generalized when a different model is employed. The purpose of this study is to parametrically compare regional brain mechanical responses from three validated head FE models to test the hypothesis that regional brain responses are dependent on the specific head model employed as well as the region of interest (ROI). The Dartmouth Scaled and Normalized Model (DSNM), the Simulated Injury Monitor (SIMon), and the Wayne State University Head Injury Model (WSUHIM) were selected for comparisons. For model input, 144 unique kinematic conditions were created to represent the range of head impacts sustained by male collegiate hockey players during play. These impacts encompass the 50th, 95th, and 99th percentile peak linear and rotational accelerations at 16 impact locations around the head. Five mechanical variables (strain, strain rate, strain × strain rate, stress, and pressure) in seven ROIs reported from the FE models were compared using Generalized Estimating Equation statistical models. Highly significant differences existed among FE models for nearly all output variables and ROIs. The WSUHIM produced substantially higher peak values for almost all output variables regardless of the ROI compared to the DSNM and SIMon models (p < 0.05). DSNM also produced significantly different stress and pressure compared with SIMon for all ROIs (p < 0.05), but such differences were not consistent across ROIs for other variables. Regardless of FE model, most output variables were highly correlated with linear and rotational peak accelerations. The significant disparities in regional brain responses across head models regardless of the output variables strongly suggest that model-predicted brain responses from one study should not be extended to other studies in which a different model is utilized. Consequently, response-based injury tolerance thresholds from a specific model should not be generalized to other studies either in which a different model is used. However, the similar relationships between regional responses and the linear/rotational peak accelerations suggest that each FE model can be used independently to assess regional brain responses to impact simulations in order to perform statistical correlations with medical images and/or well-selected experiments with documented injury findings.     

Methodology to determine skull bone and brain responses from ballistic helmet-to-head contact loading using experiments and finite element analysis

The objective of the study was to obtain helmet-to-head contact forces from experiments, use a human head finite element model to determine regional responses, and compare outputs to skull fracture and brain injury thresholds. Tests were conducted using two types of helmets (A and B) fitted to a head-form. Seven load cells were used on the head-form back face to measure helmet-to-head contact forces. Projectiles were fired in frontal, left, right, and rear directions. Three tests were conducted with each helmet in each direction. Individual and summated force- and impulse-histories were obtained. Force-histories were inputted to the human head–helmet finite element model. Pulse durations were approximately 4 ms. One-third force and impulse were from the central load cell. 0.2% strain and 40 MPa stress limits were not exceeded for helmet-A. For helmet-B, strains exceeded in left, right, and rear; pressures exceeded in bilateral directions; volume of elements exceeding 0.2% strains correlated with the central load cell forces. For helmet-A, volumes exceeding brain pressure threshold were: 5–93%. All elements crossed the pressure limit for helmet-B. For both helmets, no brain elements exceeded peak principal strain limit. These findings advance our understanding of skull and brain biomechanics from helmet–head contact forces.     

Human Brain Modeling with Its Anatomical Structure and Realistic Material Properties for Brain Injury Prediction

Impairments of executive brain function after traumatic brain injury (TBI) due to head impacts in traffic accidents need to be obviated. Finite element (FE) analyses with a human brain model facilitate understanding of the TBI mechanisms. However, conventional brain FE models do not suitably describe the anatomical structure in the deep brain, which is a critical region for executive brain function, and the material properties of brain parenchyma. In this study, for better TBI prediction, a novel brain FE model with anatomical structure in the deep brain was developed. The developed model comprises a constitutive model of brain parenchyma considering anisotropy and strain rate dependency. Validation was performed against postmortem human subject test data associated with brain deformation during head impact. Brain injury analyses were performed using head acceleration curves obtained from reconstruction analysis of rear-end collision with a human whole-body FE model. The difference in structure was found to affect the regions of strain concentration, while the difference in material model contributed to the peak strain value. The injury prediction result by the proposed model was consistent with the characteristics in the neuroimaging data of TBI patients due to traffic accidents.     

具有详细解剖学结构的1岁学步儿童头部有限元模型构建及验证

目的构建详细的1岁学步儿童头部有限元模型,探究其颅脑损伤机制,完善人体有限元生物力学模型数据库。方法基于我国1岁儿童真实详细的头部CT数据,借助医学软件Mimics获得头部几何结构数据,利用逆向工程软件划分NURBS曲面片和构建工程模型,利用有限元前处理软件划分网格,参照解剖学和尸体实验等数据,验证1岁学步儿童头部有限元模型的有效性并初步分析其损伤机制。结果构建了中国男性1岁儿童头部有限元模型,模型包括并区分了大脑及小脑的灰质和白质、海马体、囟门、矢状骨缝、冠状骨缝、脑干、脑室等,几何尺寸符合解剖学统计数据。利用头部模型重构了儿童头部静态压缩尸体实验和跌落尸体实验,结果表明,该头部模型与尸体实验表现了相近的力学特征,验证了模型的有效性。计算表明不同压缩速率下颅骨刚度不同,会导致不同损伤结果。结论所构建的包含详细解剖学结构的1岁儿童头部有限元模型具有较高的生物仿真度,借助构建的模型可分析深部脑组织各部位的详细损伤情况,特别是闭合性颅脑损伤,为相关研究及临床应用提供有效的工具和手段。     

Methodology and Evaluation of Intracranial Pressure Response in Rats Exposed to Complex Shock Waves

Studies on blast neurotrauma have focused on investigating the effects of exposure to free-field blast representing the simplest form of blast threat scenario without considering any reflecting surfaces. However, in reality personnel are often located within enclosures or nearby reflecting walls causing a complex blast environment, that is, involving shock reflections and/or compound waves from different directions. The purpose of this study was to design a complex wave testing system and perform a preliminary investigation of the intracranial pressure (ICP) response of rats exposed to a complex blast wave environment (CBWE). The effects of head orientation in the same environment were also explored. Furthermore, since it is hypothesized that exposure to a CBWE would be more injurious as compared to a free-field blast wave environment (FFBWE), a histological comparison of hippocampal injury (cleaved caspase-3 and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)) was conducted in both environments. Results demonstrated that, regardless of orientation, peak ICP values were significantly elevated over the peak static air overpressure. Qualitative differences could be noticed compared to the ICP response in rats exposed to simulated FFBWE. In the CBWE scenario, after the initial loading the skull/brain system was not allowed to return to rest and was loaded again reaching high ICP values. Furthermore, results indicated consistent and distinct ICP-time profiles according to orientation, as well as distinctive values of impulse associated with each orientation. Histologically, cleaved caspase-3 positive cells were significantly increased in the CBWE as compared to the FFBWE. Overall, these findings suggest that the geometry of the skull and the way sutures are distributed in the rats are responsible for the difference in the stresses observed. Moreover, this increase stress contributes to correlation of increased injury in the CBWE.     

Importance of partitioning membranes of the brain and the influence of the neck in head injury modelling

A head injury model consisting of the skull, the CSF, the brain and its partitioning membranes and the neck region is simulated by considering its near actual geometry. Three-dimensional finite-element analysis is carried out to investigate the influence of the partitioning membranes of the brain and the neck in head injury analysis through free-vibration analysis and transient analysis. In free-vibration analysis, the first five modal frequencies are calculated, and in transient analysis intracranial pressure and maximum shear stress in the brain are determined for a given occipital impact load.     

三维有限元头颅模型参数及边界条件研究

目的 确定三维有限元模型材料阻尼参数，实现寰枕关节模拟。方法 对不同材料阻尼参数下的模型进行冲击载荷加载，分析比较计算后不同材料阻尼下颅骨应力一时间曲线形态，确定模型采用的材料阻尼参数值。应用弹簧单元模拟寰枕关节，比较模拟前后，模型在冲击载荷下颅骨应力，确定弹簧单元参数。结果 不同颅骨材料阻尼条件下，额部冲击区域颅骨节点的von Mises应力曲线均无第2峰值，应力峰值随阻尼增大而逐渐降低，峰值出现时间后移，枕部颅骨节点应力曲线在冲击后期应力下降趋势更显著，在0．001—0．004之间颅骨应力曲线形态最佳。模拟寰枕关节，弹簧单元采用颅骨材料参数，在X、Y轴方向弹簧弹性系数10N／mm，Z轴方向的为20N／mm，颅骨应力曲线后期可下降。结论 颅骨线弹性材料阻尼系数对模型颅骨应力响应有显著影响。模型脑组织应力主要受颅骨应力的影响。采用三维弹簧单元模拟寰枕关节可降低模型颅骨应力，模拟寰枕关节对模型颅骨应力的影响较颅骨材料阻尼系数的影响小。     

颅脑接触面的不同设置以及脑脊液单元划分密度对脑组织动态响应的影响

目的 探讨颅脑接触面不同定义方式和脑脊液（cerebrospinal fluid, CSF）单元划分密度对脑组织动态响应的影响。方法 基于第50百分位成人头部有限元模型,通过重构尸体直线撞击试验和旋转试验,将颅骨、CSF和脑组织之间定义为共节点、固连和滑动不分离接触面,研究不同接触面类型对脑组织动态响应的影响;颅骨、CSF和脑组织实现共节点接触,将CSF划分为1层和3层六面体单元并保持厚度不变,研究不同CSF划分密度对脑组织动态响应的影响。结果 颅内压力对不同接触面类型较敏感,但脑组织响应对不同CSF单元的划分层数不敏感。结论 研究结果对头部有限元模型中CSF构建以及颅脑接触界面的选择提供理论参考。     

气囊式头盔防护下的两轮车骑车人头部损伤风险分析

目的 提出一种气囊式头盔缓冲内衬结构,并分析其对两轮车骑车人头部损伤的防护效果。方法 将气囊式内衬应用于自行车（半盔）和摩托车（全盔）两款典型的两轮车骑车人头盔,通过标准GB 24429-2009和法规ECE R22.05测试工况下的有限元碰撞仿真,获得人体头部模型运动学和生物力学响应,从颅骨骨折和颅脑损伤风险角度对比常规聚苯乙烯泡沫塑料（expanded polystyrene, EPS）头盔,综合评价气囊式头盔的防护性能。结果 当气囊压力为0.06 MPa时,气囊式头盔（半盔/全盔）防护下的人体头部颅骨骨折相关量分别小于120 g和150 g,颅骨骨折风险基本低于40%;颅脑最大主应变均小于0.3,轻度脑损伤风险均低于25%;气囊式头盔防护下的人体颅骨骨折和颅脑损伤风险均低于EPS头盔。结论 本文设计的气囊式头盔具有较好的防护效果,能兼顾颅骨骨折和颅脑损伤防护,可以为新型头盔的设计提供基础示例。损伤风险分析也可为骑车人头部损伤应急诊断提供初步参考。     

10岁儿童头部有限元模型的建立及验证

运用ANSYS ICEM CFD以及HYPERMESH软件对10岁儿童头部几何模型进行合理的网格划分,获得具有高度解剖学细节的10岁儿童头部有限元模型。利用MADYMO软件自带的假人,模拟一起典型跌落事故中,受伤儿童从3个不同高度跌落时人体的动力学响应过程,并计算头部与地面碰撞接触瞬间的方位和速度等运动学参数。然后将这些参数输入到10岁儿童头部有限元模型中,模拟头部与地面的碰撞过程,并分析与损伤相关的生物力学参数。结果表明,颅骨的最大应力和最大应变分布在枕骨右侧,与碰撞点的位置较为吻合,但均未超过颅骨的耐受极限。利用颅内压力可较好地预测脑组织的损伤程度,而利用脑组织的von mises应力可较好地判断脑组织的损伤位置。事故重建的结果表明,该模型具有较好的生物逼真度,可以用于儿童头部损伤生物力学的研究。     

6岁儿童行人-汽车碰撞中碰撞角度对头部损伤的影响

目的应用符合欧洲新车安全评鉴协会(the European New Car Assessment Programme,Euro NCAP)要求的6岁儿童行人有限元模型,探究不同碰撞角度对儿童头部损伤的影响。方法应用符合Euro NCAP技术公告(TB024)并且具有详细解剖学结构的6岁儿童行人有限元模型,设置4组行人-汽车碰撞仿真试验,探究不同碰撞角度下儿童头部损伤情况。人体头部质心初始位置在车的纵向中心线上,轿车初速度为40 km/h,轿车分别与人体右侧、前侧、左侧、后侧碰撞(即0°、90°、180°、270°)。比较不同碰撞角度下运动学差异和头部碰撞响应,同时分析面骨和颅骨的损伤情况。结果通过分析儿童行人头部接触力、头部质心合加速度、头部质心相对于车的合速度、头部损伤标准(head injury criterion,HIC_(15))、面骨骨折情况以及颅骨应力分布发现,背面、正面碰撞下儿童头部骨折及发生脑组织损伤的风险大于侧面碰撞,其中背面碰撞下儿童行人头部损伤风险最高,侧面碰撞下儿童行人头部损伤风险最低。结论背面碰撞下儿童行人头部损伤风险最大,研究结果对行人-汽车碰撞评估和防护装置研发具有重要的应用价值。