Mechanical restitution of isolated human ventricular myocardium subjected to in vivo pressure and volume overload.

OBJECTIVE: The aim was to make a comparison of the mechanical and electrical refractory properties of isolated strips of human ventricular myocardium obtained from patients with either left ventricular pressure overload, volume overload, or normal left ventricular function. METHODS: Strips of ventricular myocardium were obtained at the time of cardiac surgery from 17 patients with aortic stenosis, representing pressure overload, 14 patients with aortic regurgitation, representing volume overload, and nine patients with mitral stenosis, representing normal left ventricular function. Muscle strips were mounted isometrically in a tissue bath, superfused with physiological saline at 37 degrees C, and stimulated at 1 Hz. Mechanical restitution curves were constructed from the isometric twitch tension obtained from extrastimuli during a special stimulus protocol. Transmembrane action potentials were recorded using glass microelectrodes and restitution of the upstroke velocity of action potentials studied in the presence of high external potassium concentration. RESULTS: The aortic stenosis group was older and had higher left ventricular systolic pressures and thicker left ventricular walls than the other groups. Electrocardiographic evidence of left ventricular hypertrophy was present in both the aortic stenosis and aortic regurgitation groups. Peak tension, time to peak tension, and the maximum rates of rise and fall of tension were not significantly different between groups. The time constant of the initial rapid recovery phase of mechanical restitution (tau 1) was prolonged in the aortic stenosis group, at 603(SEM 80) ms v 367(53) ms in the aortic regurgitation group (p < 0.005), and 259(70) ms in the mitral stenosis group (p < 0.005). There was a positive correlation between tau 1 and left ventricular wall thickness (p < 0.05). Neither "normal" nor "slow" (in the presence of raised external potassium) transmembrane action potentials differed in the groups studied. The mean time constant of recovery of "slow" action potential dV/dtmax was slower in the aortic stenosis group, but this difference was not significant. CONCLUSIONS: These data are consistent with the hypothesis that the rate of recovery of calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum is slowed in myocardial hypertrophy due to pressure overload in man and provides a possible explanation of the occurrence of mechanical alternans in such patients.     

Hypertensive hypertrophied myocardium is vulnerable to infarction and refractory to erythropoietin-induced protection

The objective of this study was to examine the hypothesis that hypertensive hypertrophy is vulnerable to infarction and defective in cytoprotective mechanisms by modification of intracellular signaling and mitochondrial proteins. Myocardial infarction was induced by 20-minute coronary occlusion/reperfusion in spontaneously hypertensive stroke-prone rats (SHR-SPs) and their controls (Wistar-Kyoto rats [WKYs]). Infarct size expressed as a percentage of area-at-risk was larger by 29% in SHR-SPs than in WKYs. Pretreatment with erythropoietin (EPO) significantly limited infarct size in WKYs but not in SHR-SPs. Ca(2+) retention capacity of mitochondria, an index of the threshold for opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore, on reperfusion was reduced in SHR-SPs compared with that in WKYs. Suppression of reactive oxygen species by N-(2-mercaptopropionyl)-glycine increased Ca(2+) retention capacity after reperfusion and limited infarct size in SHR-SPs to levels in WKYs. EPO induced phosphorylation of Akt, extracellular signal-related kinase, and glycogen synthase kinase-3β in the myocardium in both WKYs and SHR-SPs. EPO enhanced interaction of phospho-glycogen synthase kinase-3β and adenine nucleotide translocase on reperfusion in WKYs, although such an effect of EPO was not detected in SHR-SPs. The results suggest that enhanced opening of mitochondrial permeability transition pores by reactive oxygen species and modification of the signal downstream of phospho-glycogen synthase kinase-3β in the mitochondria underlie the increased vulnerability to infarction and the lack of anti-infarct tolerance by EPO, respectively, in hypertensive hypertrophied hearts.     

压力超负荷时心肌闰盘的改变

目的 研究压力超负荷时心肌闰盘的变化。方法 采用大鼠腹主动脉缩窄模型,在透射电镜下观察心肌闰盘的超微结构变化;免疫组化观察钙粘素（ｐａｎ－ｃａｄｈｅｒｉｎ）,连续蛋白４３（ｃｏｎｎｅｘｉｎ４３,Ｃｘ４３）,桥粒蛋白（ｄｅｓｍｏｐｌａｋｉｎ）的表达。结果 术后１０周手术组心肌闰盘的粘着膜、桥粒、间隙连接结构模糊,连接间隙增宽;Ｐａｎ－ｃａｄｈｅｒｉｎ,Ｃｘ４３,ｄｅｓｍｏｐｌａｋｉｎ在心肌细胞表面呈     

牛磺酸对压力超负荷大鼠心肌中钙调神经磷酸酶和肾上腺髓质素的影响

目的观察牛磺酸灌服6周后对压力超负荷大鼠心肌中钙调神经磷酸酶（CaN）和肾上腺髓质素（ADM）的影响。方法将Wistar大鼠随机分为3组：对照组、缩窄组和给药组。参照Anderson方法制作压力超负荷心肌肥厚大鼠模型。术后1周开始给予牛磺酸50mg·kg^-1·d^-1,给药6周后处死动物,检测左心系数（左室重／体重比,LVW／BW）、CaN活性及ADM含量。结果与对照组相比,缩窄组大鼠SBP、LVW／BW显著升高（P〈0．05）,心肌中CaN活性、ADM含量显著增高（P〈O．05）。给药组与缩窄组相比,SBP、LVW／BW下降（P〈0．05）,心肌中CaN活性、ADM含量显著下降（P〈0．05）。结论牛磺酸有降低压力超负荷大鼠收缩压及减轻心肌肥厚的作用,该作用可能与其抑制CaN活性和ADM分泌有关。     

脂联素在慢性压力负荷性心力衰竭大鼠心肌中的表达

目的：探讨脂联素（adiponectin）蛋白在慢性心力衰竭尤其是伴有2型糖尿病的大鼠心肌组织中的分布及表达,以及糖尿病对心衰大鼠心肌中脂联素表达的影响.方法：选取Sprague-Dawley雄性大鼠,将其随机分为假手术组（SHAM组）、单纯2型糖尿病组（DM组）、单纯心力衰竭组（HFNDM组）和心力衰竭伴2型糖尿病组（HFDM组）.建立慢性压力负荷性心力衰竭的大鼠模型及高脂高糖饮食后小剂量链脲佐菌素（STZ）诱导的2型糖尿病大鼠模型.运用苏木素-伊红（HE）染色观察大鼠的心脏组织学形态.通过免疫组化、Western Blot定位、定量研究脂联素在心肌中的表达. 结果：大鼠模型建立8周后,DM组及HFDM组大鼠体质量明显低于SHAM组（均P＜0.01）.HFNDM组、DM组及HFDM组的心脏重量指数均显著增加（P＜0.01）.HE染色显示心力衰竭大鼠心肌细胞肥大、排列不整齐、细胞间连接松散,心肌纤维紊乱.免疫组化结果表明各组大鼠心肌中均有脂联素蛋白的表达,定位于细胞浆.Western Blot显示脂联素在糖尿病心肌中低表达（P＜0.05）,心力衰竭心肌中高表达（P＜0.01）. 结论：尽管糖尿病会影响脂联素在大鼠心肌组织中的表达,但在心衰伴糖尿病时心肌中脂联素的表达量仍高于正常大鼠.     

17beta-estradiol regulates constitutive nitric oxide synthase expression differentially in the myocardium in response to pressure overload

Estrogens [E(2)] exert direct and indirect effects that can modulate the development of cardiac disease. However, the precise mechanisms that are involved remain undefined. Our objective was to investigate whether E(2) affected the activity and expression of constitutive nitric oxide synthase (NOS) isoforms (NOS3 and NOS1) in cardiac hypertrophy induced by thoracic aortic constriction (TAC). Ovariectomized (Ovx) and nonovariectomized Wistar rats were subjected to TAC. Ovx animals received E(2) or placebo 3 wk after surgery for 11 wk. Afterward cardiac function and degree of left ventricular hypertrophy were assessed by echocardiography. NOS activity and expression were studied by biochemical techniques. TAC led to significant left ventricular hypertrophy (>90%) irrespective of hormonal status. Cardiac performance declined more in TAC+Ovx (-20%, P < 0.015) than in the two other TAC groups [TAC and TAC+Ovx+E(2)]. Total NOS activity decreased significantly in the Ovx groups. In response to TAC, total NOS activity increased whatever the E(2) status. Specific NOS3 activity dramatically decreased in the Ovx groups (-55%, P < 0.009) and was unaltered by TAC. By using coimmunoprecipitation assays, we showed that NOS3/caveolin-1 complexes negatively regulated NOS3 activity as a function of E(2) status. On the other hand, NOS1 expression and activity were markedly increased in hypertrophied myocardium (P < 0.003), irrespective of E(2) status. This study demonstrates a differential regulation of NOS expression and activity in response to pressure overload and E(2) status, the former being mainly involved in the induction of NOS1, whereas the latter regulated NOS3 activity and in turn cardiac function.     

缬沙坦对压力超负荷下心脏多聚二磷酸腺苷核糖合成酶活性的影响

目的:观察缬沙坦对慢性压力超负荷下左心室心肌多聚二磷酸腺苷(ADP)核糖合成酶(PARP)活性、心脏形态及心功能的影响.方法:Wistar雄性大鼠34只随机分为假手术组(sham组)10只、腹主动脉缩窄组(AC组)12只、腹主动脉缩窄加缬沙坦干预结扎组(Val组)12只.术后24周行心脏超声和血流动力学检查,并取左心室心肌检测PARP活性.结果:与sham组比较,AC组PARP活性显著增强(P＜0.01),左心室质量/体重(LVW/BW)显著升高(P＜o.05),左心室射血分数显著降低(P＜o.05);与AC组比较,Val组PARP活性显著减弱(P＜0.01),LVW/BW显著降低(P＜0.05),左心室射血分数明显升高(P＜0.05).结论:缬沙坦可抑制压力负荷下心室肌PARP过度激活,并减轻心室重构及心功能的损害.     

Hibernating myocardium: chronically adapted to ischemia but vulnerable to sudden death

The inability to reproduce spontaneous ventricular fibrillation in an animal model of chronic coronary artery disease has limited advances in understanding mechanisms of sudden cardiac death (SCD). Swine with hibernating myocardium arising from a chronic left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD) occlusion have a high rate of SCD that parallels the poor clinical survival of medically treated patients with hibernating myocardium. Kaplan-Meier analysis (n=426) demonstrated a cumulative mortality of 49% after 5 months that was almost entirely attributable to spontaneous SCD. Using implantable loop recorders, ventricular fibrillation was documented as the arrhythmic mechanism of death in all animals (n=10) and was usually preceded by ventricular tachycardia (n=8). Physiological studies before SCD (n=7) demonstrated total LAD occlusion and collateral-dependent myocardium (n=5), excluding acute occlusion as a major trigger of arrhythmia. The physiological substrate of hibernating myocardium was present before SCD, with reductions in LAD perfusion (SCD 0.79+/-0.13 versus 0.80+/-0.08 mL/min per g) and wall thickening (SCD 28+/-3% versus 22+/-3%) that were similar to survivors (n=14). Triphenyltetrazolium chloride infarcts among animals with SCD were infrequent (4 of 32) and small, averaging 4.6% of LV mass. Histology (n=4) showed postmortem changes but no acute inflammation nor contraction band necrosis. These data support the notion that hibernating myocardium is a pathophysiological substrate at high risk of SCD. This is independent of changes in functional stenosis severity, acute myocardial necrosis, or fibrotic scar. Thus, regional adaptations that promote myocyte survival in the setting of chronic repetitive ischemia result in a substrate with enhanced vulnerability to lethal arrhythmias and SCD.     

压力超负荷致心室重构大鼠线粒体内腺苷酸转运体表达的改变

目的探讨压力超负荷致心室重构时大鼠心肌线粒体内膜腺苷酸转运体(ANT)表达的改变及其意义。方法雄性SD大鼠52只行腹主动脉缩窄术,随机分为腹主动脉缩窄5周组(A5w组)、腹主动脉缩窄15周组(A15w组)、假手术5周组(SH5w组)和假手术15周组(SH15w组)4组,每组13只大鼠,观察大鼠血流动力学参数、心室重构指标,密度梯度法提取大鼠心肌线粒体,高效液相色谱法测量心肌组织及线粒体腺苷酸含量,Western blot法分析心肌线粒体ANT表达。结果大鼠腹主动脉缩窄术后5周出现左心室肥厚,术后15周加重并有心功能减退;分别与同时间SH5w组和SH15w组比较,A5w组及A15w组心肌组织ATP、ADP含量均降低,A15w组线粒体内ATP及ADP含量降低;A15w组线粒体ANT表达降低,并与心肌线粒体内ATP及ADP含量变化相一致。结论心室重构伴心功能减退时,心肌线粒体ANT表达降低,导致细胞内腺苷酸分布异常,是肥厚心肌能量代谢障碍的重要机制。     

Hepatic response to right ventricular pressure overload

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Modifying the afferent blood supply to the liver does not change the zonal expression pattern of hepatic enzymes in the rat. METHODS: We used pulmonary trunk banding (PTB) to study the effect of an efferent hindrance of blood flow on hepatic architecture and zonation of gene expression. RESULTS: Most PTB rats developed right ventricular hypertrophy and congestive heart failure. The hepatic response to PTB developed concomitantly with the decline in heart function. Enzyme expression in the periportal region was not affected, but the pericentral rim of hepatocytes expressing glutamine synthetase, ornithine aminotransferase, and NADPH cytochrome P-450 reductase (CYPred) first declined in diameter, then became discontinuous, and finally disappeared. Meanwhile, ornithine aminotransferase and especially CYPred, became re-expressed in the periportal zone. These changes occurred without appreciable cell death or fibrotic changes; the expression of fibronectin and alpha-smooth muscle actin increased perisinusoidally, but that of collagen did not. Electron microscopic analysis revealed normal fenestration of the sinusoidal endothelial cells without detectable deposition of basement membrane material, but both the width of the space of Disse and the length and number of hepatic microvilli were significantly reduced, implying a decreased flow of fluid in the space of Disse. CONCLUSIONS: The reprogramming of gene expression in livers with a postsinusoidal hindrance of blood flow results from declining access of the hepatocytes to intrasinusoidal signal-transduction molecules and suggest that the impaired biotransformation that accompanies right ventricular failure is caused by a central-to-portal shift in expression of the corresponding enzymes.     

Cardiac hypertrophy is enhanced in PPAR alpha-/- mice in response to chronic pressure overload

AIMS: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPARalpha) is a nuclear receptor regulating cardiac metabolism that also has anti-inflammatory properties. Since the activation of inflammatory signalling pathways is considered to be important in cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis, it is anticipated that PPARalpha modulates cardiac remodelling. Accordingly, in this study the hypothesis was tested that the absence of PPARalpha aggravates the cardiac hypertrophic response to pressure overload. METHODS AND RESULTS: Male PPARalpha-/- and wild-type mice were subjected to transverse aortic constriction (TAC) for 28 days. TAC resulted in a more pronounced increase in ventricular weight and left ventricular (LV) wall thickness in PPARalpha-/- than in wild-type mice. Compared with sham-operated mice, TAC did not affect cardiac function in wild-type mice, but significantly depressed LV ejection fraction and LV contractility in PPARalpha-/- mice. Moreover, after TAC mRNA levels of hypertrophic (atrial natriuretic factor, alpha-skeletal actin), fibrotic (collagen 1, matrix metalloproteinase-2), and inflammatory (interleukin-6, tumour necrosis factor-alpha, cyclo-oxygenase-2) marker genes were higher in PPARalpha-/- than in wild-type mice. The mRNA levels of genes involved in fatty acid metabolism (long-chain acyl-CoA synthetase, hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase) were decreased in PPARalpha-/- mice, but were not further compromised by TAC. CONCLUSION: The present findings show that the absence of PPARalpha results in a more pronounced hypertrophic growth response and cardiac dysfunction that are associated with an enhanced expression of markers of inflammation and extracellular matrix remodelling. These findings indicate that PPARalpha exerts salutary effects during cardiac hypertrophy.     

Improving glucose metabolism and/or sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase function is warranted for immature pressure overload hypertrophied myocardium.

The cellular mechanisms of abnormal calcium regulation and excitation-contraction coupling in relation to glucose metabolism in the hypertrophied heart are not well understood. The present study evaluated the myocardial mechanics of 6-7-week-old pressure overload hypertrophied rabbit hearts in response to dobutamine by (1) serial echocardiograms in vivo and (2) isolated Langendorff perfusion. Cytosolic Ca2+([Ca2+]i) and sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA2) expression were measured by fluorescence spectroscopy and Western immunoblotting, respectively. The effect of glycolytic inhibition by 2-deoxy-D-glucose +/- pyruvate was also evaluated. Both systolic and diastolic [Ca2+]i tended to be higher and diastolic calcium removal (tauCa) significantly slower in the hypertrophied heart. The myocardial response to dobutamine was blunted and dobutamine insignificantly improved tauCa. The SERCA2 protein level was higher in early hypertrophy, but was significantly reduced by 6 weeks of age, with progressive contractile failure. Inhibition of glycolysis or SERCA2 caused an increase in [Ca2+]i as well as a slower tauCa. Pyruvate completely preserved myocardial function and [Ca2+]i handling during glycolytic inhibition. It was concluded that in this model of advanced pressure overload hypertrophy, contractile failure and inotrope insensitivity are associated with increased [Ca2+]i, slower tauCa and reduced sensitivity of the contractile proteins to Ca2+. These changes occur in association with downregulation of the SERCA2, probably caused by impaired glucose metabolism.     

Volume overload influence on hypertrophied myocardium function

The aim of this study was to demonstrate that hypertrophied cardiac muscle is more sensitive to volume-overload than normal cardiac muscle. We assessed the mechanical function of isolated left ventricular papillary muscle from male spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and age-matched normotensive Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY) submitted to volume overload caused by aortocaval fistula (ACF) for 30 days. Muscles were perfused with Krebs-Henseleit solution at 28 degrees C and studied isometrically at a stimulation rate of 0.2 Hz. The ACF increased the right and left ventricular weight-to-body weight ratio in WKY rats; it also promoted right ventricular hypertrophy and further increased the basal hypertrophy in the left ventricle from SHR. The arterial systolic pressure was greater in SHR than in WKY rats, and decreased with ACF in both groups. Developed tension (DT) and maximum rate of DT (+dT/dt) were greater in the SHR-control than in the WKY-control (P < 0.05); the time from peak tension to 50% relaxation (RT 1/2) was similar in these animals. ACF did not change any parameters in the SHR group and increased the resting tension in the WKY group. However, the significant difference observed between myocardial contraction performance in WKY-controls and SHR-controls disappeared when the SHR-ACF and WKY-controls were compared. Furthermore, RT 1/2 increased significantly in the SHR-ACF in relation to the WKY-controls. In conclusion, the data lead us to infer that volume-overload for 30 days promotes more mechanical functional changes in hypertrophied muscle than in normal cardiac muscle.     

The metabolic modulators, Etomoxir and NVP-LAB121, fail to reverse pressure overload induced heart failure in vivo

Shifting substrate oxidation in heart muscle from fatty acids to glucose (substrate-switch) may improve contractile function in heart failure. We tested whether application of two agents (etomoxir and NVP-LAB121) capable of inducing a substrate-switch reverts the onset of heart failure in rats with chronic pressure-overload. Hypertrophy was induced by aortic banding in rats for 1 or 15 weeks. Rats were treated for 10 days with the CPT-1-inhibitor etomoxir [29.5 μmol/(kg day)] or with NVP-LAB121 [60 μmol/(kg day)], a pyruvate-dehydrogenase-kinase-inhibitor, before assessment by echocardiography and perfusion as isolated working hearts. We also analyzed PDH- and CPT1-activity and expression of α- and β-MHC by RT-PCR. Aortic banding increased heart-to-body-weight-ratio (g/kg) from 3.44 ± 0.26 to 4.14 ± 0.48 after 1 week and from 2.80 ± 0.21 to 6.54 ± 0.26 after 15 weeks. Ejection fraction was impaired after 15 weeks (57 ± 11 vs. 73 ± 8%, P < 0.05) and rats exhibited signs of heart failure. Total PDH activity was the same in all groups. CPT-1 activity was unchanged after 1 week but decreased after 15 weeks (P < 0.01). Neither etomoxir nor NVP-LAB121 affected cardiac function in vivo, but etomoxir improved function of the isolated heart. The drugs did not affect total PDH and CPT-1 activity, but increased PDH-activity status, prevented a decrease in PDK4 expression in heart failure, increased α and β-MHC expression and shifted substrate oxidation toward glucose in the isolated working rat heart. In conclusion, pharmacologic induction of substrate-switching is associated with changes in myofibrillar isoform expression but does not reverse heart failure in vivo. The improvement of function in vitro deserves further investigation.     

c-Flip overexpression reduces cardiac hypertrophy in response to pressure overload

OBJECTIVE: Activation of Fas signaling has been associated with the development of cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. In the present study, we investigated the effects of increased expression of c-Flip, a natural modulator of Fas receptor signaling, in a mouse model of cardiac growth response to pressure overload. METHODS: A transgenic mouse overexpressing c-Flip in the heart was generated in FVB/N strain. Echocardiographic, hemodynamic, histological and molecular analyses were carried out under basal conditions and after transverse aortic constriction (TAC)-induced pressure overload. RESULTS: Overexpression of c-Flip in ventricular heart tissue was functionally silent under basal conditions affecting neither cardiac morphology nor basal cardiac function. Transgenic mice were then subjected to pressure overload by TAC procedure. Under such conditions, c-Flip transgenic mice showed normal left ventricular function with a significantly reduced left ventricular hypertrophy compared with wild-type mice and reduced induction of the cardiac "fetal" gene programme. Further, analysis of intracellular signaling pathways indicated that c-Flip overexpression reduced phosphorylation of both the glycogen synthase kinase 3beta (GSK3 beta) and Akt as compared with controls. Finally, the reduction of the TAC-induced hypertrophy was not accompanied by significant apoptosis increase. CONCLUSION: Altogether, these findings indicate c-Flip as a key regulator of the cardiac response to ventricular pressure overload.