Impaired self-awareness after traumatic brain injury: A systematic review. Part 2. Consequences and predictors of poor self-awareness

BackgroundImpaired self-awareness (ISA) has frequently been found both frequent and deleterious in patients with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury (TBI).ObjectivesThis is the second of a two-part systematic review on ISA after TBI, focusing on the consequences and predictors of ISA after TBI.MethodsFollowing the PRISMA guidelines, 95 articles meeting the inclusion criteria were included; 46 were specifically related to this second part of the review.ResultsAmong 16 studies that investigated the effect of ISA on outcome, most (n = 13) found poor self-awareness associated with poor rehabilitation, functional, social and vocational outcome and with increased burden on relatives. Multiple factors have been found associated with increased frequency of ISA. ISA was found significantly related to injury severity in 8 of 10 studies, impaired executive functions in 12 of 15 studies, and poor social cognition in 3 studies, but paradoxically inverse associations were repeatedly found between self-awareness and emotional status (11 of 12 studies). Finally, although research in the field is still scarce, ISA seems associated with a dysfunction within brain networks involving the anterior cingulate cortex, anterior insula and fronto-parietal control network.ConclusionsISA is a complex and multifaceted disorder associated with poor rehabilitation outcome, severe injuries, and deficits of executive functions and social cognition but has an inverse association with mood impairments.     

Strengthening the quality of longitudinal research into cognitive-communication recovery after traumatic brain injury: A systematic review

Purpose: (i) To systematically review longitudinal and prognostic studies relating to the trajectory of cognitive-communication recovery after TBI and (ii) to provide recommendations to strengthen future research.

Method: Thirteen health literature databases were accessed up until July 2014.

Main measures: Articles were screened systematically against pre-determined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Quality reviews were performed on the selected articles using a modified Downs & Black Rating Scale. Two independent reviewers performed the reviews.

Result: Sixteen longitudinal and prognostic articles met the inclusion criteria. There was evidence of either maintenance or improvement of cognitive-communication skills during the first 3 years post-injury. However, the studies did not provide detailed recovery trajectories, by failing to evaluate numerous data points over time. No studies evaluated recovery beyond 3 years post-injury. Injury severity, lesion location, brain volume loss and conversation skills may predict specific cognitive-communication outcomes. There was high variability in study characteristics and measures.

Conclusion: There is currently scarce evidence regarding cognitive-communication recovery and prognosis. People with TBI may recover or maintain pre-morbid cognitive-communication skills during the early rehabilitation stage. Further research detailing the recovery trajectory with a view to evaluating predictive factors is strongly indicated. Guidelines for future research are provided.     

Prognostic role of copeptin after traumatic brain injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies

Purpose

Copeptin, the C-terminal portion of provasopressin, has emerged as a novel prognostic marker in neurocritical care, such as in traumatic brain injury (TBI). The aim of this study was to quantitatively assess the prognostic significance of initial plasma copeptin levels in the neurological outcome and mortality after traumatic brain injury.

Managing cognitive difficulties after traumatic brain injury: a review of online resources for families

Purpose: To identify and critically appraise the content, readability, reliability and usability of websites providing information for managing cognitive difficulties in everyday life for the families of adults with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury.

Method: Systematic searches on the Internet for relevant websites were conducted using five search engines, and through consultation of the lists of resources published on websites of traumatic brain injury organizations. Two team members assessed eligibility of the websites. To be included, they had to provide information related to management of cognitive difficulties following moderate to severe traumatic brain injury, to be in English or French and available free of charge. Two reviewers evaluated each website according to: (1) its readability using Flesch–Kincaid Grade Level; (2) the quality of its content using a checklist of eight recommendations for managing memory, attention and executive function problems; (3) its usability (e.g., clear design) and reliability (e.g., currency of information) using the Minervation Validation Instrument for Health Care Web Sites.

Results: Of the 38 websites included, 10 provide specific tips for families that cover several domains of cognitive function, including memory, attention and executive function. The most frequent recommendations focused on the use of environmental supports for memory problems (n?=?33 websites). The readability of information is below the recommended grade 7 for only nine of the websites. All sites show acceptable usability, but their quality is variable in terms of reliability of the information.

Conclusions: This review provides useful information for selecting online resources to educate families about the management of cognitive difficulties following moderate to severe traumatic brain injury, as a complement to information and training provided by the rehabilitation team.

• Implications for rehabilitation

• This review describes standardized criteria for the evaluation of the content, readability, reliability and usability of websites for family education post-TBI.

• Given the variability in the content, the readability and the reliability of websites providing information for families about the management of cognitive difficulties post-TBI, careful attention to the selection of appropriate resources is required.

• Findings from this review may facilitate clinicians’ identification of relevant websites to educate families about the management of cognitive difficulties post-TBI, as a complement to other information and training from the rehabilitation team.

     

Traumatic brain injury: An integrated clinical case presentation and literature review: Part I: Assessment and initial management

Holistic nursing care of critically ill patients continues to be a challenge for all levels of critical care clinicians. Patients with multi-system dysfunction in particular, present complicated clinical challenges that demand care based on sound knowledge and understanding of physiological, psychosocial and spiritual needs. Experiential learning through exposure to a range of patient presentations enables incremental development of professional practice and excellence in nursing care. Case study learning enhances understanding through application of theory to practice in complex clinical presentations.

This two-part paper outlines the assessment, interventions and outcome of a person who sustained multiple trauma including severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). Part I explores assessment and initial management from pre-hospital care through to the Emergency Department (ED) and operating theatre. Part II describes the intensive care period as an integral component of the continuum of care. Key issues in the case are presented sequentially with relevant literature integrated and applied to clinical progress, focussing on the complex physiological, psychosocial, spiritual and environmental needs of the patient and his family. The purpose of the paper is to therefore provide a comprehensive learning resource for critical care nurses, particularly for those beginning their practice.     

Coagulopathy as a predictor of mortality after penetrating traumatic brain injury

Study hypothesis

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of mortality with penetrating TBI (p-TBI) patients having worse outcomes. These patients are more likely to be coagulopathic than blunt TBI (b-TBI) patients, thus we hypothesize that coagulopathy would be an early predictor of mortality.

颅脑损伤术后精神障碍200例临床分析

目的 探讨外伤性精神障碍与脑叶损伤部位的关系及外伤性精神障碍的愈后。方法通过对200例因颅脑损伤开颅术后出现精神障碍患者的临床资料分析判定外伤性精神障碍与脑叶损伤具体部位的关系及愈后情况。结果单纯额叶损伤69例，单纯颞叶损伤65例，额、颞叶均损伤56例，合并下丘脑损伤10例，以左侧半球损伤为主占124例，以右侧半球损伤为主占76例。随访至术后6个月：痊愈141例，显著好转29例，好转24例，无效6例。结论外伤性精神障碍的出现与脑叶损伤部位密切相关，均损伤了人脑的精神活动中枢且通过积极的综合治疗，愈后良好。     

心理韧性改善脑外伤康复效果的系统综述

目的 系统综述心理韧性在改善脑外伤康复效果中的作用。方法 通过主题词检索方式,在PubMed、ScienceDirect、知网、万方、维普数据库检索心理韧性干预在改善脑外伤康复效果中作用的相关文献,检索时间建库至2021年12月31日。经筛选从文献中提取研究、国家、研究对象、研究设计、干预频率、干预效果、康复影响和影响因素,并采用PEDro量表进行方法学质量评价。结果 共获得有效文献6篇,主要集中在心理韧性干预在改善脑外伤患者的身体功能、创伤后应激障碍、心理功能和社会适应方面的研究。结论 心理韧性干预可减少患者的身体症状和创伤后应激障碍,促进心理功能恢复,使患者保持乐观的态度,采取灵活的应对方式,积极适应社会。     

创伤性颅脑损伤后神经细胞凋亡的研究

目的：通过对创伤性颅脑损伤后神经细胞凋亡的研究，了解人脑创伤后脑组织中凋亡发生的情况及其所起的作用。方法：采用末端脱氧核苷酸转移酶介导的d-UTP生物素标记法(TUNEL法)检测细胞凋亡。同时显微镜观察病理切片。结果：66．7％出现TUNEL阳性，TUNEL阳性与阴性患者间的GCS评分(t=-2.88，P=O．01)、受伤时间(t=2．14，P=0．049)有显著差异。TUNEL阳性与阴性患者间性别、年龄、预后无显著差异。结论：人脑创伤后脑组织中存在凋亡，且与患者的病情严重程度及病程相关。其在颅脑创伤的病理过程中有一定作用，但只是颅脑损伤后复杂病理过程中的一种表现，即创伤后神经细胞死亡的一种方式。     

脑外伤后血浆和肽素的变化及其临床意义

目的探讨脑外伤患者血浆和肽素（ copeptin）浓度的变化及其临床意义。方法入选脑外伤患者98例,依据入院时GCS评分不同将脑外伤患者分成3～5分组（30例）,6～8分组（32例）,9～12分组（36例）,另选取30例健康人为正常对照组。各组均采用ELISA法检测血浆和肽素浓度。对比分析血浆和肽素浓度与GCS评分的关系,记录患者30 d死亡率,分析血浆和肽素浓度及GCS评分在死亡组和存活组的差别。采用受试者工作特征曲线（ receiver operating characteristic, ROC）评估血浆和肽素浓度及GCS评分对患者预后的预测价值。结果①脑外伤组血浆和肽素浓度（13．6±3．7）ng/mL,较对照组（0．9±0．4）ng/mL显著增高（P＜0．01）。入院时GCS评分越低,血浆和肽素浓度越高,三组间血浆和肽素浓度差异有统计学意义（ P＜0.05）。②相关分析显示,脑外伤患者血浆和肽素浓度与入院时 GCS评分呈负相关（ r ＝-0．79, P＜0.01）,与血糖浓度呈正相关（r＝0．68,P＜0．01）。③植物生存或死亡组患者血浆和肽素浓度显著高于预后良好及预后差组（ P＜0．01,P＜0．05）;植物生存或死亡组及预后差组GCS评分均低于预后良好组（P＜0．05）,但两组比较差异无统计学意义（P＞0．05）。④以30 d为研究终点,植物生存或死亡患者10例,和肽素的曲线下面积（ AUC）为0．803（95％CI 0．712～0．893）;分界值为8．5 ng/mL时敏感度为84．2％,特异度为67．3％。结论脑外伤患者血浆和肽素浓度显著上升,且该指标与患者病情的严重程度密切相关,对预后有一定的预测价值。     

Disability,physical health and mental health 1 year after traumatic brain injury

Purpose.?The purpose of this study was to assess disability and the physical and mental health status 1 year after traumatic brain injury (TBI), using the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) as a conceptual model for understanding TBI disability.

Methods.?A prospective study of 85 patients with moderate-to-severe TBI (aged 16–55 years) due to injury occurring from May 2005 to May 2007 and hospitalised at the Trauma Referral Centre in Eastern Norway were included. The severity of structural brain damage and overall trauma were used as indices of body structure impairments. Activity limitations were measured by the Functional Independence Measure, and participation restrictions were assessed via the Community Integration Questionnaire. Physical and mental health dimensions as reported on the Medical Outcome Survey Short-Form were chosen as outcome measures.

Results.?Roughly one quarter of the patients reported disability requiring personal assistance. One Quarter had major problems with social integration, and 42% were not working. Nearly half of the patients reported poor physical health, and 37% reported poor mental health. Regression models, including demographics, impairments, activity limitations and participation restrictions, accounted for 50% of the variance in physical health and 35% of the variance in mental health. More severe impairments, fewer activity limitations and fewer participation restrictions equated to better overall health.

Conclusions.?The results demonstrated that a significant proportion of TBI survivors face substantial disability and impaired overall health 1 year after injury. To optimise health and well-being outcomes, clinicians need to ensure that health needs of patients with less severe TBI are identified and treated during the post-acute period.     

颅脑创伤型下丘脑垂体功能不全的临床研究

目的 研究颅脑创伤(TBI)后垂体前叶激素(APHs)、甲状腺功能(TF)和生殖激素(GnH)的动态变化及其临床意义. 方法 随机对浙江省人民医院2006年3月至2007年6月经系列头颅CT扫描和/或MRI检查,明确无下丘脑、垂体等部位的原发损伤,且既往无中枢神经系统、内分泌和泌尿生殖系统肿瘤及免疫性疾患史的93例门急诊和住院TBI患者的APHs、TF和GnH进行测定,并按患者的GCS评分、TBI类型和损伤程度以及有无继发性脑损害等因素进行分组研究,以同期20例健康体检者作为对照组.采用SPSS 11.5软件进行分析,多变量采用成组Hotelling T2检验,两组均数间比较采用t检验,P<0.05为差异具有统计学意义. 结果 93例患者人院就诊时的促肾上腺皮质激素(ACTH)、黄体生成素(LH)和泌乳素(PRL)水平明显高于出院随访期和对照组(P<0.05),促甲状腺素(TSH)和甲状腺激素T3、T4和游离T3(FT3)水平则明显低于出院随访期和对照组(P<0.05).有继发性脑损害组的血清ACTH值和PRL值分别高达(33.33±6.86)和(31.74±5.51),GCS 9～12分组的血清LH值为(9.48±1.14);颅脑损伤组的血清TSH值(1.26±0.17)明显低于对照组和其他各组(P<0.05).除TSH、PRL、睾酮(T)和雌二醇(E2),患者出院随访期其他血清APHs值均明显低于正常对照组(P<0.05).单项APH水平低下的创伤型下丘脑垂体功能不全(THPI)的发生率为13.8%,同时累及3种以上APHs的THPI发生率仅为3.2%;正常甲状腺功能病态综合征(SETS)的发生率为14.0%. 结论 THPI以单项APH分泌障碍型多见.颅脑创伤所致的急性颅内高压以及脑水肿、脑缺血等继发性脑损害可能是导致删的主要原因;TBI后早期的高PRL血症是提示THPI的重要指标,TBI后激素水平的动态变化可作为激素疗法的重要依据.     

Employment outcome four years after a severe traumatic brain injury: results of the Paris severe traumatic brain injury study

Objective: To describe employment outcome four years after a severe traumatic brain injury by the assessment of individual patients’ preinjury sociodemographic data, injury-related and postinjury factors.

Design: A prospective, multicenter inception cohort of 133 adult patients in the Paris area (France) who had received a severe traumatic brain injury were followed up postinjury at one and four years. Sociodemographic data, factors related to injury severity and one-year functional and cognitive outcomes were prospectively collected.

Methods: The main outcome measure was employment status. Potential predictors of employment status were assessed by univariate and multivariate analysis.

Results: At the four-year follow-up, 38% of patients were in paid employment. The following factors were independent predictors of unemployment: being unemployed or studying before traumatic brain injury, traumatic brain injury severity (i.e., a lower Glasgow Coma Scale score upon admission and a longer stay in intensive care) and a lower one-year Glasgow Outcome Scale–Extended score.

Conclusion: This study confirmed the low rate of long-term employment amongst patients after a severe traumatic brain injury. The results illustrated the multiple determinants of employment outcome and suggested that students who had received a traumatic brain injury were particularly likely to be unemployed, thus we propose that they may require specific support to help them find work.

• Implications for rehabilitation

• Traumatic brain injury is a leading cause of persistent disablity and can associate cognitive, emotional, physical and sensory impairments, which often result in quality-of-life reduction and job loss.

• Predictors of post-traumatic brain injury unemployment and job loss remains unclear in the particular population of severe traumatic brain injury patients.

• The present study highlights the post-traumatic brain injury student population require a close follow-up and vocational rehabilitation.

• The study suggests that return to work post-severe traumatic brain injury is frequently unstable and workers often experience difficulties that caregivers have to consider.

     

脑外伤后进展性出血性损伤的影响因素分析

目的 探讨脑外伤后进展性出血性损伤(PHI)发生的影响因素.方法 回顾性分析127例颅脑损伤患者(PHI组49例,非PHI组78例)的临床资料,比较不同性别、年龄、格拉斯哥昏迷计分、伤后首次头颅CT检查时间、创伤性蛛网膜下腔出血(tSAH)、凝血酶原时间(PT)、活化部分凝血活酶时间(APTT)等因素对PHI发生的影响.结果 PHI组首次CT时间(1.39±1.27)h,非PHI组(2.91±1.85)h,2组比较差异有统计学意义(t=2.14,P<0.05).PHI组发生tSAH 35例,非PHI组发生37例,2组tSAH发生率差异有统计学意义(χ2=7.06,P<0.05).多因素Logistic回归分析结果表明,伤后首次行头颅CT检查的时间以及伴有tSAH与脑外伤后PHI的发生有密切关系(OR值0.558,95%CI 0.329～0.946,OR值13.000,95%CI1.187～142.354,P均<0.05).结论 颅脑损伤后首次CT检查的时间以及tSAH可以作为PHI发生的预判指标.     

Work-related difficulties in patients with traumatic brain injury: a systematic review on predictors and associated factors

Purpose: To address the content of work-related difficulties and explore which variables are associated to or determinants of these difficulties in persons that suffered from Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI). Method: Papers published between 1993 and February 2015 were included. Quality was judged as poor, acceptable, good or excellent. Determinants were extracted from longitudinal data, associated variables from cross-sectional data; variables were grouped by similarity. Evidence was judged as strong if the same results were reported by two or more good studies; limited if reported by one good and some acceptable studies. Results: Forty-two papers were selected (25,756 patients). Work-related difficulties were referred as unemployment, job instability or job cessation. Strong evidence of impact was found for: low educational level, pre-injury unemployment, Glasgow Coma Scale score and TBI severity, length of stay in acute and rehabilitation settings, lower Functional Independence Measure scores and presence of cognitive disturbances. Discussion: Evidence on the effect of rehabilitation interventions on TBI patients’ work-related difficulties exists, but is poorly measured. Future studies should address the sustainability of holistic and tailored interventions targeting employees, employers and workplaces and aimed to reduce the gap between work duties and worker’s abilities, using appropriate assessment instruments measuring difficulties in work activities.

• Implications for rehabilitation

• Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) primarily affects young persons of working age causing a broad range of motor, sensory and cognitive impairments. A combination of variables related both to pre-morbid and to injury-related factors predict and are associated to work-related difficulties.

• While demographic and injury characteristics cannot be modified, some TBI outcomes (e.g. cognitive impairments or functional status) may be addressed by specific rehabilitative interventions: the knowledge of the specific work-related difficulties of TBI patients is of importance to tailor rehabilitation programs that maximize vocational outcomes.

• Rehabilitation researchers should give attention to vocational issues and use assessment instruments addressing the difficulties in work-related activities, in order to demonstrate the benefits of rehabilitative interventions on TBI patients’ ability to work.

     

重型颅脑损伤后脑积水原因及其治疗

目的 分析重型颅脑损伤后脑积水的原因和治疗体会。方法 对我院18例重型颅脑损伤后脑积水的临床资料进行回顾性分析。结果 经治疗后本组18例患者中恢复良好12例，中残3例，重残2例，死亡l例。结论 分析脑积水原因，并针对其病因和积水不同时期，采取相应的措施，如侧脑室外引流，病因治疗或行内分流术。     

Return to work following traumatic brain injury: Trends and challenges

Purpose. The aim of this paper is to present the current knowledge regarding return to work (RTW) following traumatic brain injury (TBI).

Method. Based on a Medline search, the authors reviewed the current TBI rehabilitation literature regarding (a) predictive factors for successful RTW, and (b) current concepts in rehabilitative strategies for successful RTW.

Results. The functional consequences to the victim of traumatic brain injury (TBI) can be severe. Intensive rehabilitative efforts typically emphasize the early phase and address mainly the accompanying functional deficits in the realm of basic activities of daily living and mobility. An otherwise successful medical rehabilitation may end unsuccessfully because of the failure to return to work, with profound consequences to the individual and family, both economic and psychosocial. Even mild TBI may cause lasting problems in tasks calling for sustained attention. There appears to be a complex interaction between pre-morbid characteristics, injury factors, post injury impairments, personal and environmental factors in TBI patients, which influences RTW outcomes in ways that make prediction difficult. Injury severity and lack of self-awareness appear to be the most significant indicators of failure to RTW. Several medical, psychosocial and rehabilitative therapies are currently being implemented in rehabilitation settings which improve the chances of returning to work.

Conclusion. Accurate prediction of whether a particular TBI patient will successfully return to work is not feasible, with RTW rates in the 12 – 70% range. A significant proportion of TBI patients, including those who are severely injured, are able to return to productive employment if sufficient and appropriate effort is invested. A comprehensive approach – medical and psychosocial – eventually entailing adequate vocational rehabilitation with supported employment can improve outcomes.