Offline adaptive radiotherapy for bladder cancer using cone beam computed tomography

We investigated if an adaptive radiotherapy approach based on cone beam CT (CBCT) acquired during radical treatment was feasible and resulted in improved dosimetric outcomes for bladder cancer patients compared to conventional planning and treatment protocol. A secondary aim was to compare a conventional plan with a theoretical online process where positioning is based on soft tissue position on a daily basis and treatment plan choice is based on bladder size. A conventional treatment plan was derived from a planning CT scan in the radical radiotherapy of five patients with muscle invasive bladder cancer. In this offline adaptive protocol using CBCT, the patients had 10 CBCT: daily CBCT for the first five fractions and then CBCT scan on a weekly basis. The first five daily CBCT in each patient were used to create a single adaptive plan for treatment from fraction eight onwards. A different process using the planning CT and the first five daily CBCT was used to create small, average and large bladder volumes, giving rise to small, average and large adaptive bladder treatment plans, respectively. In a retrospective analysis using the CBCT scans, we compared the clinical target volume (CTV) coverage using three protocols: (i) conventional; (ii) offline adaptive; and (iii) online adaptive with choice of ‘plan of the day’. Daily CBCT prolonged treatment time by an average of 7 min. Two of the five patients demonstrated such variation in CTV that an offline adaptive plan was used for treatment after the first five CBCT. Comparing the offline adaptive plan with the conventional plan, the CTV coverage improved from a minimum of 60.1 to 94.7% in subsequent weekly CBCT. Using the CBCT data, modelling an online adaptive protocol showed that coverage of the CTV by the 95% prescribed dose line by small, medium and large adaptive plans were 34.9, 67.4 and 90.7% of occasions, respectively. More normal tissue was irradiated using a conventional CTV to planning target volume margin (1.5 cm) compared to an online adaptive process (0.5 cm). An offline adaptive strategy improves dose coverage in certain patients to the CTV and results in a higher conformity index compared to conventional planning. Further research in online adaptive radiation therapy for bladder cancer is indicated.     

Verification of target position in the post‐prostatectomy cancer patient using cone beam CT

We present the results of a pilot study designed to investigate methods that may be applied to develop a patient position correction protocol for the post‐prostatectomy patient receiving radiotherapy. Imaging was carried out with cone beam CT (CBCT) to investigate its suitability for detecting changes in rectal and bladder volumes and movements of these organs relative to the treatment planning CT. Eligible patients were imaged daily during the first week of treatment and weekly thereafter. Surrogate explanatory variables, including distance from the isocentre to the anterior rectum and bladder length, were tested for their potential to substitute for contouring entire organs and predict for changes in coverage of the planning treatment volume (PTV) by the 95% isodose (PTV95) and the maximum dose delivered to 50% of the rectal volume (RECTD50). The PTV defined on the CBCT images was larger than that defined on the planning CT and resulted in a decrease in the PTV95. Bladder length correlated with bladder volume and changes in bladder volume were associated with a decrease in PTV95. Rectal volumes changed randomly during treatment. There was a trend for the rectum to move anteriorly as treatment progressed. CBCT may be used to define the PTV, rectum and bladder though the reason for an apparent increase in PTV on CBCT requires further investigation. The bladder length and distance to the anterior rectal wall are potential surrogate explanatory variables. Further studies will be designed to test values of these surrogates that predict the need for a change in isocentre position.     

Evaluation of inter-fraction prostate motion using kilovoltage cone beam computed tomography during radiotherapy

Aims

The success of delivering the prescribed radiation dose to the prostate while sparing adjacent sensitive tissues is largely dependent on the ability to accurately target the prostate during treatment. Kilovoltage cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) imaging can be used to monitor and compensate for inter-fraction prostate motion, but this procedure increases treatment session time and adds incidental radiation dose to the patient. We carried out a retrospective study of CBCT data to evaluate the systematic and random correction shifts of the prostate with respect to bones and external marks.

Materials and methods

A total of 449 daily CBCT studies from 17 patients undergoing intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) for localised prostate cancer were analysed. The difference between patient set-up correction shifts applied by radiation therapists (via matching prostate position in CBCT and planning computed tomography) and shifts obtained by matching bony anatomy in the same studies was used as a measure of the daily inter-fraction internal prostate motion.

Results

The average systematic and random shifts in prostate positions, calculated over all fractions versus only 10 fractions, were not found to be significantly different.

Discussion

The measured prostate shifts with respect to bony anatomy and external marks after the first 10 imaging sessions were shown to provide adequate predictive power for defining patient-specific margins in future fractions without a need for ongoing computed tomography imaging. Different options for CBCT imaging schedule are proposed that will reduce the treatment session time and imaging dose to radiotherapy patients while ensuring appropriate prostate cover and normal tissue sparing.     

Outcome of post‐prostatectomy radiotherapy in one institution

We present a retrospective study to evaluate the outcome of postoperative radiotherapy for biochemical or clinical recurrent prostate cancer. Twenty‐six patients (median age 60 years) underwent radiotherapy after radical prostatectomy between January 1997 and January 2004. Seven patients received adjuvant radiotherapy and 19 received salvage radiotherapy. The median prostate‐specific antigen at diagnosis was 8.6 (0.9–89) and most (23 patients) presented with T₃N₀ disease. The median follow up was 19.5 months (5–84 months). All patients received a dose of 61.2 Gy at 1.8 Gy per fraction, 20 initially receiving 45 Gy to the lesser pelvis. The median dose to the bladder, rectum and left femoral head were 55.6, 57.5 and 33.8 Gy, respectively. All patients were managed radiotherapeutically by the first author. Twenty‐four patients are alive. Two patients have died, one from oesophageal cancer and the second from metastatic prostate cancer. Two other patients also developed metastatic disease. Four asymptomatic patients with a rising prostate‐specific antigen are under observation. None of the 26 patients has developed a local recurrence. Seven patients have developed grade 1 late bowel effects and three a grade 2 late effect. Eight patients suffer from grade 1 late genitourinary effects and two from grade 2 effects. One patient developed impotence, whereas 23 patients were rendered impotent postoperatively. There were no grade 3/4 late effects. Postoperative radiotherapy is well tolerated and provides effective local control.     

肝癌术后简化调强放疗临床靶体积误差的锥形束CT分析

目的 通过锥形束CT (CBCT)分析肝癌患者术后简化调强放疗分次间和分次内的临床靶体积(CTV)误差。方法 12例肝癌患者放疗前、后均行CBCT。在瘤床放置金属标记,配准框包全所有金属标记,不包括肋骨、椎体等骨质,使用自动骨性配准。若放疗前平移误差>3 mm和(或)旋转误差>3°则行在线校位后重复CBCT。12例患者共行214次CBCT成111组数据,111组可计算分次间左右(x)、头脚(y)、前后(z)方向CTV误差,70组可计算分次内CTV误差。计划靶体积(PTV)边界计算公式为2.0∑+0.7σ(∑为系统误差,σ为随机误差)。结果 x、y、z方向上分次间CTV平移误差分别为 －0.03、－0.43、1.02 mm,∑分别为1.50、5.89、1.97 mm,σ分别为1.76、4.13、2.42 mm;分次内平移误差分别为0.04、0.86、－0.46 mm,∑分别为0.46、1.14、0.31 mm,σ分别为0.95、1.38、0.91 mm。PTV边界在x、y、z方向上分别为4.5、15.0、5.8 mm。结论 肝癌患者简化调强放疗时CTV误差不可避免,使用术中放置瘤床金属标记行CBCT获得的数据真实准确。     

Inter‐observer variability of clinical target volume delineation for bladder cancer using CT and cone beam CT

To compare the image quality of cone beam CT (CBCT) with that of planning CT (pCT) scan, and quantify inter‐observer differences in therapeutic indices based on these scans prior to the introduction of an adaptive radiation therapy protocol for bladder cancer. Four consecutive patients were selected with muscle invasive bladder cancer receiving radical dose radiation therapy. Four radiation oncologists specializing in genitourinary malignancies contoured the clinical target volume (CTV) and rectum on both a pCT and a randomly chosen CBCT of the same patient. A conformity index (CI) for CTV and the rectum was determined for both pCT and CBCT. The maximal lateral, anterior, posterior, cranial and caudal extensions of the CTV for both CT and CBCT were determined for each observer. Variation in volumes of both the CTV and rectum for both pCT and were also compared using Varian Eclipse planning software (Varian Medical Systems, Palo Alto, CA, USA). Using pCT the mean CI for the CTV was 0.79; using CBCT the mean CI for the CTV was 0.75. For the rectum, the mean CI for using CT was 0.80 and for CBCT was 0.74. Greatest variation on CBCT CTV contours was seen in the supero‐inferior direction with variation up to 2.1 cm between different radiation oncologists. With the variation in CI for pCT and CBCT of the CTV and rectum (0.04 and 0.06 respectively), CBCT is not significantly inferior to the pCT in terms of inter‐observer contouring variability.     

鼻咽癌放疗中CBCT引导的使用频率分析

目的 分析CBCT引导下鼻咽癌放疗疗程中的摆位误差,评估CBCT的使用频率。方法 收集放疗全疗程(7周)使用CBCT引导且每周使用频率≥3次的初治IMRT患者26例。将每周的摆位误差分为每周首次误差(Ef)及除每周首次外的后续误差(Ec),用方差分析和t检验比较每周Ef之间、Ec之间、Ef与Ec之间差异。结果 7周Ef的两两周间比较左右(ML)、上下(SI)、前后(AP)方向均相近(P>0.05);7周的Ec两两周间比较ML、SI方向上也均相近(P>0.05),但AP方向不同(P<0.05);7周中同一周次Ef与Ec比较ML和SI方向各周均相近(P>0.05),AP方向第1周Ef与Ec间不同(P<0.05),其余各周Ef与Ec之间均相近(P>0.05)。结论 鼻咽癌IMRT中,ML和SI方向摆位误差在全程都比较稳定,AP方向摆位误差仅在第1 周与后面几周之间有差异;建议除特殊情况外,可在放疗第1周每天进行CBCT扫描,后续几周的放疗中可每周扫描1次以减少CBCT的使用频率。     

Comparison of 2D radiographic images and 3D cone beam computed tomography for positioning head-and-neck radiotherapy patients

PURPOSE: To assess the positioning accuracy using two-dimensional kilovoltage (2DkV) imaging and three-dimensional cone beam CT (CBCT) in patients with head and neck (H&N) cancer receiving radiation therapy. To assess the benefit of patient-specific headrest. MATERIALS AND METHODS: All 21 patients studied were immobilized using thermoplastic masks with either a patient-specific vacuum bag (11 of 21, IMA) or standard clear plastic (10 of 21, IMB) headrests. Each patient was imaged with a pair of orthogonal 2DkV images in treatment position using onboard imaging before the CBCT procedure. The 2DkV and CBCT images were acquired weekly during the same session. The 2DkV images were reviewed by oncologists and also analyzed by a software tool based on mutual information (MI). RESULTS: Ninety-eight pairs of assessable 2DkV-CBCT alignment sets were obtained. Systematic and random errors were <1.6 mm for both 2DkV and CBCT alignments. When we compared shifts determined by CBCT and 2DkV for the same patient setup, statistically significant correlations were observed in all three major directions. Among all CBCT couch shifts, 4.1% > or = 0.5 cm and 18.7% > or = 0.3 cm, whereas among all 2DkV (MI) shifts, 1.7% > or = 0.5 cm and 11.2% > or = 0.3 cm. Statistically significant difference was found on anteroposterior direction between IMA and IMB with the CBCT alignment only. CONCLUSIONS: The differences between 2D and 3D alignments were mainly caused by the relative flexibility of certain H&N structures and possibly by rotation. Better immobilization of the flexible neck is required to further reduce the setup errors for H&N patients receiving radiotherapy.     

FROGG high‐risk prostate cancer workshop: Patterns of practice and literature review. Part II post‐radical prostatectomy

Australian and New Zealand radiation oncologists with an interest in uro‐oncology were invited to undertake a pattern of practice survey dealing with issues encountered in the management of high‐risk prostate cancer in the post‐prostatectomy setting. Responses from practitioners revealed a lack of consensus regarding the optimal timing of radiation therapy, the use of whole pelvic radiation therapy and the use of androgen deprivation therapy. A review of the literature outlining the current body of knowledge and the clinical studies that will inform future practice is presented.