左旋布比卡因与布比卡因在臂丛神经阻滞中的药效学比较

目的比较左旋布比卡因与布比卡因在臂丛神经阻滞中的药效学特性.方法60例上肢手术患者,ASA Ⅰ～Ⅱ级,随机分成三组,Ⅰ组为0.375%布比卡因,Ⅱ组为0.375%左旋布比卡因,Ⅲ组为0.375%左旋布比卡因加1：200 000肾上腺素.肌间沟法行臂丛神经阻滞.观察阻滞起效时间及持续时间、神经阻滞节段数、术中镇痛质量、不良反应以及注药前、注药后5、10、30、60 min时心率（HR）和平均动脉压（MAP）.结果Ⅱ、Ⅲ组麻醉起效时间短于Ⅰ组（P＜0.05）;麻醉持续时间Ⅱ、Ⅲ组长于Ⅰ组但差异无显著性,Ⅱ、Ⅲ组间比较差异无显著性;各组阻滞节段数、术中牵拉痛发生率、HR及MAP差异无显著性;Ⅰ组寒战发生率高于Ⅱ、Ⅲ组（P＜0.05）.结论左旋布比卡因有与布比卡因相似的药效学特性,可安全用于临床臂丛神经阻滞;肾上腺素不延长左旋布比卡因的麻醉持续时间.     

低浓度罗比卡因用于颈丛阻滞的临床观察

颈丛阻滞具有操作简单、对全身影响小、术中可观察病人发音情况、术后恢复快等特点。在基层医院广泛应用。本研究选用0.25％罗比卡因对甲状腺次全切除病人行颈丛阻滞,并与0.25％布比卡因及0.15％地卡因和1％利多卡因混合液作比较,以评价低浓度罗比卡因用于颈丛阻滞的的临床效果。     

相同浓度的左旋布比卡因、罗比卡因与布比卡因硬膜外腔给药用于剖宫产术时效性的比较

目的比较左旋布比卡因、罗比卡因和布比卡因用于硬膜外麻醉剖宫产术的阻滞效果、母婴安全和药物不良反应.方法采用随机双盲法,将48例择期剖宫产手术的足月单胎产妇分为三组：0.5%左旋布比卡因组（L组）17例、0.5%罗比卡因组（R组）15例和0.5%布比卡因组（B组）16例.记录硬膜外腔给药后产妇的感觉阻滞和运动阻滞的起效和持续时间、肌松满意程度、麻醉质量评价、恶心和呕吐等不良反应及术中心率、血压、脉搏血氧饱和度和新生儿1 min和5 min Apgar评分.结果产妇的一般情况、新生儿的Apgar评分组间无显著性差异;三组术中低血压及其他不良事件（恶心和呕吐）的发生率无显著性差异;各组的麻醉质量（术中的疼痛评分和肌松满意度）基本一致;感觉阻滞起效和维持时间组间无显著性差异,运动阻滞改良Bromage评分为1分的起效时间和持续时间组间有显著性差异.结论常用量0.5%左旋布比卡因、罗比卡因和布比卡因用于剖宫产手术的硬膜外麻醉时具有相似的麻醉效能和安全性.     

罗比卡因用于高位硬膜外麻醉的临床观察

本研究拟通过对临床常用浓度的罗比卡因和布比卡因在高位硬膜外阻滞时的效能、安全性比较 ,为罗比卡因在高位硬膜外用药提供资料。资料与方法一般资料　 80例择期行乳房手术的女性患者 ,ＡＳＡⅠ～Ⅱ级 ,手术时间 (40± 12 )分钟 ,随机均分为四组 :0 2 5 %布比卡因组 (Ⅰ组 ) ,0 2 5 %罗比卡因组 (Ⅱ组 ) ,0 5 %布比卡因组 (Ⅲ组 ) ,0 5 %罗比卡因组 (Ⅳ组 ) ,行Ｔ2～ 3 硬膜外麻醉 ,置入导管 ,回吸无血或脑脊液后 ,采用双盲法分别注射上述药物 18ｍｌ。观察项目和指标　 (1)感觉阻滞 :平头针刺法 ,每分钟测一次麻醉平面 ,起效时间为注…     

不同浓度罗哌卡因用于腋路臂丛神经阻滞的研究

目的探讨0.25%、0.3%、0.375%罗哌卡因用于臂丛神经阻滞的有效性和安全性,并与0.25%布比卡因对照.方法选择ASAⅠ-Ⅱ级准备行上肢手术的病人80例,随机分为4组,每组20例,分别用0.25%、0.3%、0.375%罗哌卡因和0.25%布比卡因40ml行臂丛神经阻滞,观察病人有无不适症状,并分别对感觉和运动进行评价.结果随着浓度增加罗哌卡因麻醉强度依次增加,40m10.25%罗哌卡因麻醉强度明显低于0.25%布比卡因,且满意率低,仅为85%;将罗哌卡因浓度提高到0.375%,显示出与0.25%布比卡因相当的麻醉强度,满意率则提高到100%.结论 0.25%罗哌卡因用于臂丛神经阻滞起效慢、满意率低,不是临床使用的适宜浓度;0.3%、0.375%罗哌卡因起效快,作用完善,副作用少,可推荐用于长时间臂丛神经阻滞,而以0.375%罗哌卡因最为适宜.     

罗比卡因颈丛阻滞的临床观察

本文观察使用 0 2 %罗比卡因行一针法颈丛阻滞 ,并与0 375 %布比卡因比较 ,探讨低浓度罗比卡因用于颈丛阻滞的可行性。资料与方法一般资料　ＡＳＡⅠ～Ⅱ级 ,30例甲状腺腺瘤患者 ,随机分为两组。Ⅰ组罗比卡因 (ｎ =15 ) ,男 4例 ,女 11例 ,年龄32 6± 8 6 7岁 ,体重 5 9 3± 7 5 4ｋｇ ;Ⅱ组布比卡因 (ｎ =15 ) ,男 5例 ,女 10例 ,年龄 34 2± 7 5 3岁 ,体重 5 7 2± 8 31ｋｇ。麻醉方法　采用一点法颈丛阻滞 ,在Ｃ4 横突部位穿刺 ,患侧阻滞深、浅丛 ,对侧阻滞浅丛。Ⅰ组用 0 2 %罗比卡因 ,Ⅱ组用 0 375 %布比卡因 ,深丛注药 4ｍｌ,双…     

不同浓度罗比卡因腰丛联合坐骨神经阻滞用于膝关节镜手术的比较

目的观察一定剂量的罗比卡因配成不同浓度溶液用于腰丛联合坐骨神经阻滞在膝关节镜手术的麻醉效果比较.方法40例拟行单侧膝关节镜手术患者随机分为A、B两组,每组20例,均在神经刺激仪定位下行腰丛联合坐骨神经阻滞,在腰丛神经和坐骨神经处均分别注入罗比卡因150 mg.A组将150 mg罗比卡因稀释到20 ml使用,即浓度为0.75%;B组稀释到30 ml,即浓度为0.5%.观察患者感觉和运动阻滞起效时间及维持时间,以及麻醉满意程度.结果两组患者感觉阻滞维持时间差异无显著性（P＞0.05）,感觉及运动阻滞起效时间A组比B组明显缩短（P＜0.05）,而运动阻滞维持时间A组明显延长（P＜0.05）,麻醉满意度B组明显优于A组（P＜0.05）.结论A组麻醉比B组起效快,但只运动阻滞时间明显延长,且麻醉满意度较差.所以在相同剂量的情况下,用0.5%的罗比卡因比用0.75%的罗比卡因行腰丛联合坐骨神经阻滞更适合于膝关节镜手术.     

不同局部麻醉药硬膜外阻滞麻醉行隆乳术的效果

目的观察隆乳手术中不同局部麻醉药混合液行硬膜外阻滞的麻醉效果及并发症.方法 120例行乳房假体置入术患者分为4组,以T4～T5棘突间隙为硬膜外穿刺点,分别注入含1 %利多卡因及0.375 %罗哌卡因、0.25 %罗哌卡因、0.25 %布比卡因的混合液及单纯1.3 %利多卡因溶液,初量13 ml,观察麻醉效果及对血流动力学的影响和并发症.结果切皮均无疼痛,脉搏氧饱和度无明显变化,血压及心率轻度降低.1 %利多卡因加0.375 %罗哌卡因、0.25 %罗哌卡因或0.25 %布比卡因混合液组的阻滞麻醉效果较好,单纯1.3 %利多卡因组效果较差.65例(54 %)患者出现鼻塞,39例(33 %)麻醉后发生心动过缓,无组间差异.结论高位硬膜外阻滞麻醉可安全、有效地应用于隆乳房手术麻醉,1 %利多卡因与0.25 %罗哌卡因或布比卡因混合液不仅阻滞麻醉效果较好,对生理功能影响也较小.     

外周神经刺激器定位在腋路臂丛神经阻滞的应用

目的　比较外周神经刺激器 (PNS)定位技术与异感定位技术用于腋路臂丛神经阻滞(BPB)的成功率 ,以及罗比卡因与布比卡因的临床效果。方法　 4 5例拟行前臂、腕、手掌及手指部位手术的患者 ,随机分为三组 ,每组 15例。Ⅰ组采用PNS定位 ,当刺激到桡神经、尺神经或正中神经中的任意一支神经时予以阻滞 ;Ⅱ组采用PNS分别定位到两支神经时予以阻滞。局麻药均为 0 5 %罗比卡因。Ⅲ组采用异感定位 ,局麻药为 0 5 %布比卡因。结果　三组患者神经阻滞起效时间分别是( 2 0 4± 3 3 )、( 14 5± 3 2 )和 ( 2 9 1± 4 0 )分钟 (P <0 0 1)。与Ⅰ组、Ⅱ组相比 ,Ⅲ组对桡神经阻滞的有效例数最少 (P <0 0 5 )。布比卡因比罗比卡因运动阻滞完善 ,运动阻滞持续时间长 (P <0 0 1)。PNS定位组神经阻滞成功率显著高于异感定位 (P <0 0 1)。三组镇痛持续时间无区别。结论　PNS定位较异感定位更精确 ,阻滞成功率高 ;两点定位给药较一点定位给药阻滞起效快 ;罗比卡因比布比卡因起效快 ,运动阻滞轻 ,运动阻滞持续时间短     

硬膜外阻滞用于分娩镇痛时对感觉和运动神经阻滞的观察

罗比卡因是一种新型酰胺类局麻药 ,低浓度时对运动神经的阻滞弱于布比卡因。本文比较持续硬膜外罗比卡因和布比卡因用于分娩镇痛时对感觉和运动神经阻滞效果。资料与方法一般资料　选择ＡＳＡⅠ～Ⅱ级的初产妇 76例 ,足月、单胎、无妊娠合并症 ,自愿接受分娩镇痛。随机分罗比卡因组(Ａ组 )和布比卡因组 (Ｂ组 ) ,每组 38例 ,两组产妇年龄、身高、体重相同无显著性差异 (Ｐ >0 0 5 ) (表 1)。方法　两组产妇均以宫口开至 3ｃｍ时行硬膜外Ｌ2～ 3 椎间隙穿刺 ,向头端置管 3 5ｃｍ。Ａ组注入 0 2 5 %罗比卡因 ,Ｂ组注入 0 2 5 %布比卡因。两…     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.