Safe surgical technique: reconstruction of the sternoclavicular joint for posttraumatic arthritis after posterior sternoclavicular dislocation

Posttraumatic sternoclavicular arthritis related to chronic ligamentous instability after posterior sternoclavicular dislocation represents a rare but challenging problem. The current article in the Journal’s “Safe Surgical Technique” series describes a successful salvage procedure by partial resection of the medial clavicle and ligamentous reconstruction of the sternoclavicular joint with a figure-of-eight semitendinosus allograft interposition arthroplasty.     

Enhancement of tendon-bone integration of anterior cruciate ligament grafts with bone morphogenetic protein-2 gene transfer: a histological and biomechanical study

BACKGROUND: The integration of tendon grafts used for replacement of the anterior cruciate ligament is still sometimes unsatisfactory and may be associated with postoperative anterior-posterior laxity. The goal of this study was to examine the capacity of bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) gene transfer to improve the integration of semitendinosus tendon grafts at the tendon-bone interface after reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament in rabbits. METHODS: The anterior cruciate ligaments of adult New Zealand White rabbits were replaced with autologous double-bundle semitendinosus tendon grafts. The semitendinosus tendon grafts had been infected in vitro with adenovirus-luciferase, adenovirus-LacZ (AdLacZ), or adenovirus-BMP-2 (AdBMP-2); untreated grafts served as controls. The grafts were examined histologically at two, four, six, and eight weeks after surgery. In additional experiments, the structural properties of the femur-anterior cruciate ligament graft-tibia complexes, from animals killed eight weeks postoperatively, were determined from uniaxial tests. The stiffness (N/mm) and ultimate load to failure (N) were determined from the resulting load-elongation curves. RESULTS: Genetically engineered semitendinosus tendon grafts expressed reporter genes as well as BMP-2 in vitro. The AdLacZ-infected grafts showed two different histological patterns of transduction. Intra-articularly, infected cells were mostly aligned along the surface, and they decreased in number between two and eight weeks after surgery. In the intra-tunnel portions of the grafts, the number of infected cells did not decrease during the observation period. Moreover, a high number of transduced cells was found in the deeper layers of the tendons. In the control group, granulation-type tissue at the tendon-bone interface showed progressive reorganization into a dense connective tissue, and a later establishment of fibers resembling Sharpey fibers. In the specimens with an AdBMP-2-infected anterior cruciate ligament graft, a broad zone of newly formed matrix resembling chondro-osteoid had formed at the tendon-bone interface at four weeks after surgery. This area was increased at six weeks, showing a transition from bone to mineralized cartilage and nonmineralized fibrocartilage. In addition, in the AdBMP-2-treated specimens, the tendon-bone interface in the osseous tunnel was similar to that of a normal anterior cruciate ligament insertion. The stiffness (29.0 +/- 7.1 N/mm compared with 16.7 +/- 8.3 N/mm) and the ultimate load to failure (108.8 +/- 50.8 N compared with 45.0 +/- 18.0 N) were significantly enhanced in the specimens with an AdBMP-2-transduced graft when compared with the control values (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that BMP-2 gene transfer significantly improves the integration of semitendinosus tendon grafts in bone tunnels after reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament in rabbits. Clinical Relevance: Novel technologies including gene therapy and tissue engineering, such as those described in this study, may provide useful therapeutic procedures to enhance biological healing after reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament.     

Sternoclavicular joint reconstruction--a systematic review

Background: Dislocation of the sternoclavicular joint is a rare injury that has a low incidence of signifcant long-term symptoms. Surgical reconstruction of the joint is indicated in patients with symptomatic, chronic anterior instability or with irreducible or recurrent posterior instability. There have been many reported techniques for stabilization of the joint, but few investigators have reported more than several cases. The ideal reconstruction has not been identifed. Purpose: The purpose of this investigation was to perform a systematic review of the available literature with the objective of identifying one technique of sternoclavicular reconstruction that could be recommended. Methods: A systematic review of literature pertaining to treatment of sternoclavicular joint injuries was performed, focusing on clinical reports with at least six patients and 1 year of follow-up. We also reviewed biomechanical reports pertaining to sternoclavicular reconstruction. Results: Six clinical reports and two biomechanical studies were identifed that met our inclusion criteria. Treatments described in the clinical reports included conservative treatment with a sling, repair of the joint capsule with provisional stabilization, and joint reconstruction with local tissue or graft tissue. One biomechanical study compared the strength of three reconstruction techniques. Conclusion: Reconstruction with tendon tissue woven in a figure-of-eight pattern through drill holes in the manubrium and clavicle is stronger than reconstructions with local tissue. The review of clinical reports suggests excellent outcomes with this technique, and it is recommended in cases of chronic instability. In cases of acute instability requiring open reduction or inability to maintain a reduction in a posterior dislocation, there is evidence that repair of the joint capsule is suffcient surgical treatment.     

Ligamentous restraints to anterior and posterior translation of the sternoclavicular joint

This experiment was conducted to determine the primary ligamentous restraints to anterior and posterior translation of the sternoclavicular joint. Twenty-four unpaired cadaver specimens were mounted in a custom fixture. Anterior and posterior translations were measured under a sub-failure load in the intact specimen and again after transecting one randomly chosen ligament (anterior capsule, posterior capsule, interclavicular ligament, and costoclavicular ligament; n = 6 for each group). Cutting the posterior capsule resulted in significant increases in anterior translation and posterior translation. Cutting the anterior capsule produced significant increases in anterior translation. Cutting the costoclavicular and interclavicular ligaments had little effect on sternoclavicular joint translation. The posterior capsule is the most important restraint for anterior and posterior translation of the sternoclavicular joint. The anterior capsule is another important restraint for anterior translation. The costoclavicular and interclavicular ligaments have little effect on anterior or posterior translation of the sternoclavicular joint.     

Inveterate dislocation fracture of the sternoclavicular joint

We present the case report of a 21-year-old man with a late diagnosis of retrosternal dislocation of the sternoclavicular joint with a fractured sternal end of the clavicle. The first symptom leading to the diagnosis was dysphagia associated with physical activity. The diagnosis was based on computed tomography examination. In the first place, the fragment of the medial clavicular end was fixed with two screws. During surgery the sternoclavicular joint was wrongly identified; this fact was revealed by the following radiographic examination. On revision surgery, the sternoclaviculr ligament was reconstructed using a semitendinosus tendon graft. The reconstructed ligament was augmented with two Orthocord sutures running between the clavicle and the first rib. At 2 years after surgery the functional outcome and sternoclavicular joint stability were excellent.     

Bifocal fracture of sternal end of clavicle-pseudodislocation of sternoclavicular joint. Report of a case

We report an unusual case of bifocal fracture of the sternal part of clavicle, combining a metaphysodiaphysal fracture of the sternal end of the clavicle, a proximal physeal fracture, and a ligament avulsion of sternoclavicular joint, without neurovascular damage. Its surgical repair used an osteosynthesis with K-wires and tension band wiring and synthetic ligamentoplasty of the anterior and posterior sternoclavicular ligaments, without any reconstruction of the costoclavicular ligament. The clinical and radiographic results at six months are presented and the operative technique used in this case of pseudodislocation of sternoclavicular joint is discussed and compared to those previously published.     

The acromioclavicular capsule as a restraint to posterior translation of the clavicle: a biomechanical analysis

Excessive posterior translation of the residual clavicle after distal clavicle resection can be associated with significant postoperative pain. Although the acromioclavicular capsule has been identified as the primary restraint to translation of the clavicle along this axis, the individual contributions of the anterior, posterior, superior, and inferior components of the capsular ligament have not been established. The purpose of this study was to define the relative roles of the individual acromioclavicular capsular ligaments in preventing posterior translation of the distal clavicle in normal acromioclavicular joints in a human cadaver model. Six fresh-frozen human cadaveric acromioclavicular joints were mounted on a specially designed apparatus which, when attached to a standard servohydraulic materials testing device, allowed translation of the distal clavicle along the anteroposterior axis of the acromioclavicular joint (i.e., parallel to the articular surface). Resistance to posterior displacement was measured for standardized displacements in the normal specimens and after serial sectioning of each of the acromioclavicular ligaments was performed. Sectioning of the anterior and inferior capsular ligaments had no significant effect on posterior translation at the 5% significance level. However, sectioning of the superior and posterior ligaments had statistically significant effects (P < .05). These capsular structures contributed 56% +/- 23% (+/- SEM) and 25% +/- 16%, respectively, of the force required to achieve a given posterior displacement. To avoid excessive posterior translation of the clavicle after distal clavicle excision, surgical techniques that spare the posterior and superior acromioclavicular capsular ligaments should be used.     

Concomitant reconstruction of the medial collateral and posterior oblique ligaments for medial instability of the knee

We present the operative technique and clinical results of concomitant reconstruction of the medial collateral ligament (MCL) and the posterior oblique ligament for medial instability of the knee using autogenous semitendinosus tendon with preservation of the tibial attachment. The semitendinosus tendon graft between the screw on the medial epicondyle and the tibial attachment of the graft was overlapped by the MCL, while the graft between the screw and the insertion of the direct head of the semimembranosus tendon was overlapped by the central arm of the posterior oblique ligament. Assessment was by stress radiograph and the Lysholm knee scoring scale. After a mean follow-up of 52.6 months (25 to 92), the medial joint opening of the knee was within 2 mm in 22 of 24 patients. The mean Lysholm score was 91.9 (80 to 100). Concomitant reconstruction of the MCL and posterior oblique ligament using autogenous semitendinosus tendon provides a good solution to medial instability.     

胭绳肌腱重建前交叉韧带后半腱肌腱再生的B超研究

目的研究腘绳肌腱重建前交叉韧带后半腱肌腱再生的情况.方法随访15 例行四股绳肌腱重建前交叉韧带的病例,以高频B超在屈膝30°观察取腱部位,并以对侧正常膝作对照.结果随访15 例患者中均可见到半腱肌腱的再生,平均随访10个月,信号与对侧正常肌腱相似,关节内侧水平线上4 cm处横断面大小与对侧比较无显著性差异,再生肌腱附着点与对侧相比偏近端3.1 cm.结论绳肌腱重建前交叉韧带后可有类似于正常肌腱的半腱肌腱再生,横断面与正常肌腱相似,但附着点偏近端.     

Atraumatic spontaneous posterior subluxation of the sternoclavicular joint

We report a case of atraumatic spontaneous posterior subluxation of the sternoclavicular joint in a 19-year-old woman without any known underlying pathology. There was no history of injury. The patient was treated operatively using the gracilis tendon to reinforce the anterior sternoclavicular ligament. One year later the patient is asymptomatic and has returned to her usual life. Received: 20 September 1997     

Revision anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction with doubled semitendinosus and gracilis tendons and lateral extra-articular reconstruction

BACKGROUND: The outcome of revision anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction has only rarely been reported. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the results of revision anterior cruciate ligament surgery with use of an autogenous doubled semitendinosus and gracilis graft in association with an extra-articular procedure. METHODS: Between 1997 and 2003, thirty patients underwent a repeat reconstruction of a previously reconstructed torn anterior cruciate ligament with use of a doubled semitendinosus and gracilis graft combined with an extra-articular reconstruction. Primary reconstruction had been done with an autogenous patellar tendon graft in twenty-six patients and with a prosthetic ligament in four patients; the average time from the primary reconstruction to the revision was five years. Functional outcomes, graft survival, and radiographic outcomes were evaluated at a mean of five years. A graft was considered to have failed when a revision was done or when the side-to-side difference on KT-1000 arthrometer testing was >5 mm and/or the pivot-shift test grade was greater than a trace. RESULTS: One patient underwent another revision reconstruction because of graft failure at three years postoperatively. The mean International Knee Documentation Committee (IKDC) subjective knee score for the remaining twenty-nine patients was 84 +/- 12 points, and the mean Lysholm knee score was 90 +/- 10 points. The side-to-side difference as measured with the KT-1000 arthrometer with maximum manual force was <3 mm in twenty patients (of the twenty-eight who returned for follow-up), between 3 and 5 mm in six patients, and >5 mm in two patients. The result of the pivot shift examination was normal in fifteen patients, slightly positive in eleven patients, and positive in two patients. Twenty-five percent of the patients showed no radiographic signs of degenerative joint disease. CONCLUSIONS: Revision anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction with use of an autogenous doubled semitendinosus and gracilis graft combined with an extra-articular procedure provided satisfactory functional outcomes, with a failure rate of 10%.     

Double-bundle posterior cruciate ligament reconstruction with quadriceps and semitendinosus tendon grafts

This study presents a novel arthroscopic technique for double-bundle reconstruction of the posterior cruciate ligament. A quadriceps tendon-patellar bone autograft is used to reconstruct the major anterolateral bundle. An additional double-stranded semitendinosus tendon is used to reconstruct the posteromedial bundle. In 70° of flexion and full extension with anterior drawer force, the quadriceps tendon graft and semitendinosus tendon graft are fixed inside the anterior aspect of the single tibial tunnel, respectively. An anatomic reconstruction can be achieved by using these 2 autografts.     

Effect of arthroscopic procedures on the acromioclavicular joint

The objective of the current study was to determine the effect of arthroscopic acromioplasty, and combined acromioplasty and distal clavicle resection on joint kinematics and in situ forces in response to an anterior, posterior, and superior load of 70 N. The loading conditions were applied to 10 fresh-frozen cadaveric shoulders using a robotic and universal force and moment sensor testing system. Translations in response to a posterior load increased by approximately 30% after combined acromioplasty and distal clavicle resection when compared with the intact and acromioplasty conditions. The in situ force in the trapezoid and conoid ligaments increased significantly from 13 +/- 15 N to 40 +/- 25 N and 13 +/- 13 N to 38 +/- 28 N, respectively, between the intact and combined acromioplasty and distal clavicle resection conditions during anterior loading. The results suggest that an arthroscopic acromioplasty alone does not significantly affect the mechanics of the acromioclavicular joint with these loading conditions. However, an acromioplasty combined with a distal clavicular resection does result in significant increases in joint motion and ligament forces. In some circumstances, such as after a previous joint separation, the increased forces in the coracoclavicular ligaments could result in additional damage to weak ligaments.     

Two-stage reconstruction with autografts for knee dislocations

Traumatic knee dislocations are severe injuries that involve damage to the anterior cruciate ligament, the posterior cruciate ligament, and the lateral or medial ligamentous structures. There are no established methods of treatment. The objective of the current study was to report the clinical outcome of a two-stage autologous reconstruction on nine knees (eight patients). The mean followup was 40.1 months. The first stage of the reconstruction was done at a mean of 2 weeks after the injury, and the posterior cruciate ligament was reconstructed by an arthroscopically assisted technique using contralateral autogenous hamstring tendon as the graft material. Three months later, the second stage of the reconstruction was done for the ligaments that had not healed with conservative treatment. Arthroscopically assisted anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction was done on all of the knees using the ipsilateral autogenous hamstring tendon or bone-patellar tendon-bone as the graft material. At the same time, a medial collateral ligament reconstruction using an autogenous semitendinosus tendon was done on one knee, and reconstruction of the posterolateral ligamentous structures using a biceps tendon was done on three knees. Each of the knees that was reconstructed was capable of full extension, and the mean degree of passive flexion was 139.5 degrees +/- 5.2 degrees. The mean side-to-side difference in anteroposterior total laxity (KT-1000 arthrometer, manual maximum) was 2.3 +/- 1.9 mm. None of the knees had lateral or medial instability. All of the injured ligaments were able to be reconstructed with autografts, and severe contracture was able to be prevented. A good clinical outcome can be achieved when two-stage reconstruction is used for traumatic knee dislocations.     

A safe zone for resection of the medial end of the clavicle

Medial clavicle resection is indicated when symptoms of sternoclavicular instability or degeneration remain disabling despite nonoperative management. Preservation or reconstruction of the costoclavicular ligament (rhomboid ligament) is essential to prevent subsequent instability of the remainder of the medial clavicle. Eighty-six cadaveric sternoclavicular joints were dissected to determine the distance (safe resection length [SRL]) from the inferior articular surface of the medial end of the clavicle to the most medial insertion of the costoclavicular ligament (rhomboid ligament). The mean SRL was 1.2 +/- 0.3 cm in men and 1.0 +/- 0.2 cm in women. Resection of 1.0 cm of the medial clavicle would result in no or minimal disruption of the costoclavicular ligament in 84% of men, and resection of 0.9 cm of the medial clavicle would result in no or minimal disruption of the costoclavicular ligament in 89% of women. We recommend that these amounts be used as a guide to safe resection of the medial clavicle but that the costoclavicular ligament be exposed to allow certainty of preservation.     

Operative Stabilisierung der akuten/chronischen Sternoklavikulargelenkinstabilität mit autologem Grazilissehnengraft

Surgical objective

Restoration of joint stability and unimpaired, painless shoulder function

Indications

Chronic and recurrent painful instabilities of the sternoclavicular (SC) joint. Locked posterior instability.

Contraindications

A lack of autologous tendon grafts due to harvesting of all hamstring grafts during prior surgical procedures and general contraindications for surgery/anesthesia.

Surgical technique

Joint stability is restored by a gracilis tendon allograft passed through two drill holes in the sternum and the medial clavicle using a figure-of-eight configuration.

Postoperative management

Immobilization in a sling for 6 weeks with passive motion exercises followed by 6 weeks of active mobilization without weight-bearing. After 12 weeks, continuous remobilization with increasing weight-bearing.

Results

SC joint reconstruction using an autologous tendon graft in a figure-of-eight configuration can significantly improve shoulder function and pain relief. However, some impairment of shoulder function or persistent complaints may occur, which must be discussed with the patient in the preoperative setting.     

关节镜下先进人工韧带加强系统和四股自体半腱肌腱重建前交叉韧带的疗效比较

目的 比较关节镜下应用先进人工韧带加强系统(ligament advanced reinforcement system,LARS)和4股自体半腱肌腱重建膝关节前交叉韧带(anterior cruciate ligament,ACL)的疗效,探讨LARS重建ACL的临床效果.方法 2002年7月-2005年4月,分别采用LARS和4股自体半腱肌腱于关节镜下重建42例ACL断裂患者.半腱肌腱组(27例):男22例,女5例;年龄20～52岁.运动伤12例,交通伤8例,其他损伤7例.左膝16例,右膝11例.Lysholm膝关节评分为(50.70 ±6.68)分.病程2～12个月.LARS组(15例):男12例,女3例;年龄17～40岁.运动伤8例,交通伤4例,其他损伤3例.左膝6例,右膝9例.Lvsholm膝关节评分为(50.20±6.22)分.病程3～12个月.两组患者间各项指标差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05).结果 两组患者术后伤口均Ⅰ期愈合,无并发症发生.半腱肌腱组均获随访22～43个月,LAPS组均获随访18～40个月.术后12个月,半腱肌腱组5例(19%)患者屈膝30°时双膝差距>3 mm;LARS组3例(20%)>3 mm.半腱肌腱组Lysholm评分(87.80±3.41)分;LARS组为(88.90±3.30)分,组间差异无统计学意义(P>0.05).参考Cameron等改良Lysholm评分的分级标准,半腱肌腱组:优18例,良7例,可2例,优良率为92.6%;LARS组优11例,良3例,可1例,优良率为93.3%;组间差异无统计学意义(P>0.05).Tegner运动评级标准:半腱肌腱组3～6级,平均4.93级;LARS组3～7级,平均5.03级;组间差异无统计学意义(P>0.05).半腱肌腱组中2例伸膝角度较对侧差约5°,5例屈膝较对侧差5～10°;LARS组患者关节活动度均恢复正常;组间差异有统计学意义(P<0.05).两组患者均未出现急慢性滑膜炎表现.结论 LARS重建ACL可取得与4股自体半腱肌腱相同的近期疗效,且明显缩短康复时间,随访2年未发现移植术后有滑膜炎等不良反应发生.     

关节镜下双隧道半腱肌腱重建后交叉韧带

目的 :探讨关节镜下应用双股折叠半腱肌腱重建后交叉韧带 (Posteriorcruciateligament)的方法及疗效。方法 :2 0 0 0年 8月～ 2 0 0 3年 7月共收治 19例PCL损伤患者 ,使用开口螺旋肌腱剥离器剥离半腱肌腱 ,在肌腱肌腹交接处切断 ,保留肌腱远端附着点 ,纵切为两股 ,对折缝合。于股骨内髁PCL附着点处分别钻取前后两隧道 ,与胫后内外两隧道引出的重建韧带形成交叉 ,游离端使用可吸收螺钉固定。结果 :术后平均随访 16.3个月 ,Lachman试验术前 19例阳性 ,术后 1例阳性。轴移试验术前 10例阳性 ,术后均消失 ,Lysholm膝关节功能评分平均 93 .6分。IKDC评分 :A级 10例 ,B级 8例 ,C级 1例。结论 :关节镜下使用双隧道双股折叠半腱肌重建PCL能进一步恢复原有的解剖学特点 ,具有操作简单 ,重建韧带强度大 ,稳定性强 ,并发症少 ,能早期活动等优点。     

自体半腱肌腱重建距腓前韧带和跟腓韧带治疗踝关节外侧不稳

目的探讨自体半腱肌腱重建距腓前韧带和跟腓韧带治疗踝关节外侧不稳的临床效果及安全性。方法对16例踝关节外侧不稳患者行自体半腱肌腱重建距腓前韧带和跟腓韧带手术,观察踝关节功能情况。结果患者均获得随访,时间1~3年。术后6、12个月摄踝关节内翻应力位X线片未见距骨倾斜,均未发生复发踝关节外侧不稳。术后AOFAS评分为83.52分±7.26分,明显高于术前的50.45分±4.58分。踝关节功能评定:优8例,良7例,可1例。结论自体半腱肌腱重建距腓前韧带和跟腓韧带治疗踝关节外侧不稳疗效确切,安全性高,是一种较为理想的术式。     

Effect of tibial tunnel dilation on pullout strength of semitendinosus-gracilis graft in anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction

This biomechanical cadaver study evaluated the effect of tibial tunnel dilation on the pullout strength of semitendinosus and gracilis tendon grafts in anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Fourteen grafts were harvested, and the anterior cruciate ligament was reconstructed in the tibial and femoral tunnels. All femoral tunnels were reamed to the diameter of the graft. In seven knees, the tibial tunnels were reamed to the diameter of the graft. In the remaining seven knees, the tibial tunnels were reamed 2 mm smaller than the diameter of the graft and then serially dilated to the graft size using cannulated smooth dilators. Mechanical testing to graft failure was conducted. All grafts failed by graft pullout from the tibial tunnel. However, mean peak load was significantly higher for the dilated tibial specimens (616 +/- 263 N) than for the reamed specimens (453 +/- 197 N) (P = .0025).