Quantitative image analysis in adipose tissue using an automated image analysis system: differential effects of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha and -gamma agonist on white and brown adipose tissue morphology in AKR obese and db/db diabetic mice

Morphometric analysis of adipocytes is widely used to demonstrate the effects of antiobesity drugs or anti-diabetic drugs on adipose tissues. However, adipocyte morphometry has been quantitatively performed by manual object extraction using conventional image analysis systems. The authors have developed an automated quantitative image analysis method for adipose tissues using an innovative object-based quantitative image analysis system (eCognition). Using this system, it has been shown quantitatively that morphological features of adipose tissues of mice treated with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) agonists differ dramatically depending on the type of PPAR agonist. Marked alteration of morphological characteristics of brown adipose tissue (BAT) treated with GI259578A, a PPAR-alpha agonist, was observed in AKR/J (AKR) obese mice. Furthermore, there was a 22.8% decrease in the mean size of adipocytes in white adipose tissue (WAT) compared with vehicle. In diabetic db/db mice, the PPAR-gamma agonist GW347845X decreased the mean size of adipocytes in WAT by 15.4% compared with vehicle. In contrast to changes in WAT, GW347845X increased the mean size of adipocytes in BAT greatly by 96.1% compared with vehicle. These findings suggest that GI259578A may activate fatty acid oxidation in BAT and that GW347845X may cause adipocyte differentiation in WAT and enhancement of lipid storage in BAT.     

4E-BP1 regulates the differentiation of white adipose tissue

4E Binding protein 1 (4E-BP1) suppresses translation initiation. The absence of 4E-BP1 drastically reduces the amount of adipose tissue in mice. To address the role of 4E-BP1 in adipocyte differentiation, we characterized 4E-BP1^−/− mice in this study. The lack of 4E-BP1 decreased the amount of white adipose tissue and increased the amount of brown adipose tissue. In 4E-BP1^−/− MEF cells, PPARγ coactivator 1 alpha (PGC-1α) expression increased and exogenous 4E-BP1 expression suppressed PGC-1α expression. The level of 4E-BP1 expression was higher in white adipocytes than in brown adipocytes and showed significantly greater up-regulation in white adipocytes than in brown adipocytes during preadipocyte differentiation into mature adipocytes. The amount of PGC-1α was consistently higher in HB cells (a brown preadipocyte cell line) than in HW cells (a white preadipocyte cell line) during differentiation. Moreover, the ectopic over-expression of 4E-BP1 suppressed PGC-1α expression in white adipocytes, but not in brown adipocytes. Thus, the results of our study indicate that 4E-BP1 may suppress brown adipocyte differentiation and PGC-1α expression in white adipose tissues.     

促红细胞生成素导致肥胖小鼠棕色脂肪PPAR γ、UCP1和β3-AR的表达变化

目的观察注射促红细胞生成素(Erythropoietin,EPO)后,高脂喂养(high fat diet,HFD)的肥胖小鼠模型体重、脂肪含量变化以及白色脂肪组织、棕色脂肪组织中过氧化物酶体增殖激活受体γ(peroxisome proliferator-activated receptorγ,PPAR γ)、解偶联蛋白1(uncoupling protein 1,UCP1)、β3肾上腺素能受体(β3 adrenoceptor,β3-AR)mRNA以及蛋白的表达变化,为EPO治疗肥胖的机制提供线索。方法 20只高脂喂养的C57BL/6J雄鼠随机分为对照组(HFD-Con)和EPO组(HFD-EPO)。4周后比较两组动物的体重,实时定量PCR方法检测皮下脂肪、附睾脂肪以及棕色脂肪中的PPAR γ、UCP1和β3-AR mRNA表达变化。结果 4周后,与对照组比较,EPO组体重(24.53±2.03)g,HFD-Con组体重为(31.78±1.68)g,P0.001。HFD-EPO组动物的皮下脂肪与附睾脂肪重量均显著减少,P0.001。HE染色结果显示,相较于HFD-Con组,HFD-EPO组动物的脂肪细胞减小。半定量PCR和Western blotting结果显示,皮下脂肪组织与附睾脂肪组织中的PPAR γ、UCP1、β3-AR mRNA以及蛋白的表达均无显著性改变,而棕色脂肪中的PPAR γ、UCP1、β3-AR的mRNA以及蛋白表达均显著增加。结论棕色脂肪中PPAR γ、UCP1、β3-AR表达变化可能与高脂喂养后注射EPO导致体重减轻存在一定的联系。     

缺氧诱导因子-1α在胶原诱导性关节炎大鼠滑膜中的表达和意义

目的： 探讨缺氧诱导因子-1α(HIF-1α)在类风湿关节炎(RA)发病中的作用。方法： 采用雄性Wistar大鼠建立Ⅱ型胶原诱导性关节炎(CIA)模型，动态观察CIA大鼠关节炎活动指标，并于造模第21、28、35 d取膝关节滑膜分别行HE染色及HIF-1α免疫组化染色，分析HIF-1α蛋白表达与CIA大鼠关节炎活动指标、滑膜病理学评分之间的关系。结果： CIA大鼠膝关节滑膜衬里层和衬里下层细胞胞浆和胞核均表达HIF-1α，且其表达随发病时间延长而逐渐增加；滑膜表达HIF-1α与CIA大鼠关节炎活动指标、滑膜病理学总评分、滑膜增生评分及血管生成评分呈显著正相关，与炎症浸润评分无明显相关。结论： HIF-1α可能通过促进滑膜增生及血管生成而参与RA发病。     

Exercise training enhances tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced expressions of anti-apoptotic genes without alterations in caspase-3 activity in rat epididymal adipocytes

The effect of exercise training on tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) signaling was investigated in rat epididymal adipocytes. Incubation of isolated adipocytes with TNF-alpha (20 ng/ml) for 5 h enhanced the expression of the inhibitor apoptosis protein 2 (IAP2) gene without any enhancement of caspase-3 activity in both the sedentary control (C) and exercise-trained (TR) groups. However, the ability of TNF-alpha to enhance IAP2 gene expression was significantly greater in TR than in C rats. The basal expression of the IkappaB kinase beta (IKK beta) gene and that of the BCL-x(L) gene were also higher in TR than in C rats. Mn-superoxidedismutase contents in adipocytes were higher in TR than in C rats. Moreover, no apoptotic nucleuses of adipocytes in response to acute exercise were observed in either group at least up to 5 h after exercise. Exercise training also enhanced the inhibitory effect of TNF-alpha on the gene expression of the fatty acid synthase (FAS), a lipogenic enzyme, suggesting that fatty acid synthesis may be reduced. Thus, exercise training enhanced TNF-alpha signaling directed toward the expressions of survival signals and the suppression of FAS gene expression.     

Src family kinases suppress differentiation of brown adipocytes and browning of white adipocytes

Brown adipocytes and beige adipocytes can expend energy, generate heat, and increase whole‐body energy expenditure. The detailed mechanisms of adipogenesis and thermogenesis of these cells are still obscure. Here, we show that Src family kinases (SFKs) regulate both brown adipogenesis and browning of white adipocytes. To identify factors involved in brown adipogenesis, we first examined the effect of several chemical inhibitors on the differentiation of brown preadipocytes isolated from mouse brown adipose tissue (BAT) and found that treatment with PP2, the specific inhibitor of SFKs, promoted the differentiation. Another inhibitor of SFKs, PP1, also promoted the brown adipogenesis, whereas an inactive analogue of PP2, PP3, did not. Moreover, over‐expression of C‐terminal Src kinase (CSK), the negative regulator of SFKs, also promoted brown adipogenesis. Next, we examined the effect of inhibition of SFKs on the differentiation of white preadipocytes isolated from white adipose tissue (WAT). Our results showed that either PP2 treatment or CSK‐over‐expression generated Ucp1‐positive beige adipocytes, thus inducing browning of white adipocytes. Finally, our analysis showed that the expression levels and activity of SFKs in WAT were much higher than in BAT. These results taken together suggest that SFKs regulate differentiation and browning of fat cells in vivo.     

GLP-1受体激动剂对肥胖小鼠脂肪组织的脂解作用及机制探讨

目的:探讨胰高血糖素样肽1(GLP-1)受体激动剂艾塞那肽(exendin-4)对肥胖小鼠脂肪组织的作用及机制。方法:8周龄C57BL/6J小鼠高脂喂养12周后随机分为艾塞那肽组和生理盐水对照组,另设正常饮食组。取附睾旁脂肪检测sirtuin 1(SIRT1)、脂肪甘油三酯脂酶(ATGL)、肿瘤坏死因子α(TNF-α)及脂联素mRNA的表达。Exendin-4或联合SIRT1激动剂/抑制剂处理3T3-L1脂肪细胞24 h;小鼠胚胎成纤维细胞(MEF)诱导成脂肪细胞后exendin-4干预24 h;检测SIRT1、ATGL和激素敏感性脂酶(HSL)的蛋白表达水平。结果:与生理盐水对照组相比,艾塞那肽组小鼠附睾旁脂肪量、空腹血糖及血甘油三酯水平降低(均P0.05),体重减轻,血TNF-α水平降低。艾塞那肽干预后,肥胖小鼠脂肪组织SIRT1、ATGL和脂联素mRNA表达明显上调,TNF-αmRNA表达明显下调(P0.05)。Exendin-4剂量依赖性促进3T3-L1脂肪细胞SIRT1、ATGL和HSL脂解相关蛋白的表达。联合SIRT1激动剂后,脂滴数量减少,上述脂解相关蛋白的表达上调。联合SIRT1抑制剂后上述作用减弱。敲除SIRT1后MEF脂肪细胞内脂滴增大,数量增多,exendin-4促进脂解的作用消失。结论:艾塞那肽通过激活SIRT1促进肥胖小鼠脂肪组织脂解作用。     

Possible role of nitric oxide on adipocyte lipolysis in exercise-trained rats

A possible role of nitric oxide (NO) on adipocyte lipolysis was studied in exercise-trained (9 weeks of running) rats. Lipolysis in adipose tissue tended to be greater in trained rats than in control rats. A treatment of adipose tissue with 5 mM N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) showed that basal and isoproterenol-stimulated lipolysis were both significantly greater in trained rats than in control rats. In contrast, in isolated adipocytes L-NAME had no effect on lipolysis in either group of rats, though the lipolysis of isolated adipocytes was significantly greater in trained rats than in control rats. Training significantly reduced nitrite/nitrate production in adipocytes, but not in tissue. On the other hand, training increased the protein expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), but not that of inducible NOS (iNOS) in the extracts of tissue homogenates. In tissue homogenates, eNOS activity but not iNOS activity was significantly greater in trained rats than in control rats. In cellular extracts, training significantly reduced the activities of both NOS's, but the mRNA expressions of both NOS's were not different between groups. The NO donors, S-nitroso-N-acetyl-penicillamine (SNAP) and 1-propamine, 3-(2-hydroxy-2-nitroso-1-propyl-hydrazine) (PAPA-NONOate), significantly inhibited adipocyte lipolysis in response to isoproterenol in both groups. This inhibitory effect of SNAP, but not that of PAPA-NONOate, was greater in the adipocytes of trained rats than in those of the control rats. Thus it is possible that NO is involved in the regulation of lipolysis and that exercise training enhances the responsiveness of adipocytes to extracellular NO with the reduced production of nitrite/nitrate in adipocytes because of decreased activities of NOS's. On the other hand, it is also possible that exercise increases either the activity or the protein expression of eNOS in adipose tissue.     

Role of macrophages in depot-dependent browning of white adipose tissue

Sympathetic stimulation induces beige adipocytes in white adipose tissue (WAT), known as browning of WAT. In this study, exposure of mice to cold ambient temperature (10 °C) for 24 h induced the mRNA expression of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1), a marker for beige adipocytes, in inguinal WAT, but not in perigonadal WAT. Thus, we examined the role of macrophages in depot-dependent WAT browning in mice. Flowcytometric analysis showed that total number of macrophages was higher in perigonadal WAT than in inguinal WAT. Cold exposure failed to change the expression of macrophage marker genes in inguinal WAT; however, it increased the mRNA expression of CD11c and tumor necrosis factor-α in perigonadal WAT, indicating that proinflammatory M1 macrophage is activated. The removal of macrophages using clodronate significantly enhanced cold-induced UCP1 mRNA expression in perigonadal WAT. These results suggest that M1 macrophages are involved in the phenotype of perigonadal WAT that hardly undergo browning.     

IL-6 regulates exercise and training-induced adaptations in subcutaneous adipose tissue in mice

Aim: The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that IL‐6 regulates exercise‐induced gene responses in subcutaneous adipose tissue in mice. Methods: Four‐month‐old male IL‐6 whole body knockout (KO) mice and C57B wild‐type (WT) mice performed 1 h of treadmill exercise, where subcutaneous adipose tissue (AT) was removed either immediately after, 4 h or 10 h after exercise as well as from mice not running acutely. Moreover, AT was sampled at resting conditions after 5 weeks of exercise training. Results: AT leptin mRNA decreased immediately after a single running exercise bout in both genotypes and returned to baseline within 10 h of recovery in IL‐6 KO mice, but not WT mice. Leptin mRNA content decreased in WT and increased in IL‐6 KO mice with training, but without significant alterations in leptin protein. Acute exercise induced a decrease in the AT TNFα mRNA content in WT, but not in IL‐6‐KO mice, while training lowered resting levels of TNFα mRNA in both genotypes. In addition, an exercise‐induced decline in AT PPARγ mRNA content was absent in IL‐6 KO mice and in line training increased PPARγ mRNA only in IL‐6 KO mice. Conclusion: The present findings indicate a role of IL‐6 in regulating exercise‐ and training‐induced leptin and PPARγ expression in adipose tissue. In addition, while IL‐6 is required for TNF‐α mRNA reduction in response to acute exercise, IL‐6 does not appear to be mandatory for anti‐inflammatory effects of exercise training in adipose tissue.     

Gene expression in human brown adipose tissue

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) has profound effects on body weight and metabolism in rodents. Recent reports show that human adults have significant amounts of BAT. Our aim was to study the gene expression profile of human BAT. Biopsies of adipose tissue with brown-red color and subcutaneous white adipose tissue (WAT) were obtained from 24 patients undergoing surgery in the thyroid region. Intrascapular BAT and epididymal WAT biopsies were obtained from 10 mice. Expression was analyzed by DNA microarray, real-time PCR and immunohistochemistry. Using the expression of the brown adipocyte-specific gene uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) as a marker, approximately half of the human brown-red adipose tissue biopsies taken in the thyroid region contained BAT, and the presence of cells with brown adipocyte morphology was also verified by histology. Microarray analysis of 9 paired human BAT and WAT samples showed that 17 genes had at least a 4-fold higher expression in BAT compared to WAT and five of them (CKMT1, KCNK3, COBL, HMGCS2, TGM2) were verified using real-time PCR (P<0.05 for all). In addition, immunohistochemistry showed that the UCP1, KCNK3 and CKMT1 proteins are expressed in brown adipocytes. Except for UCP1 and KCNK3, the genes overexpressed in human BAT were not overexpressed in mouse BAT compared to mouse WAT. Our analysis identified genes that are differentially expressed in human BAT compared to WAT. The results also show that there are species-specific differences in BAT gene expression and this emphasizes the need for further molecular characterization of human BAT to clarify the mechanisms involved in regulated heat production in humans.     

Behavioral and genetic effects promoted by sleep deprivation in rats submitted to pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus

Neuroglobin (Ngb) is a hypoxia-inducible protein with cytoprotective effects in animal models of stroke, Alzheimer's disease, and related disorders, but the molecular mechanisms involved in its induction are unknown. We tested the hypothesis that hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) regulates Ngb levels, using shRNA-mediated knockdown and lentiviral vector-mediated overexpression of the HIF-1α subunit, in cultured neural (HN33) cells. HIF-1α knockdown decreased and HIF-1α overexpression increased Ngb levels, consistent with a connection between HIF-1 and Ngb induction. These findings may have implications for understanding the hypoxia-response repertoire of neural cells and devising therapeutic strategies for neurologic disorders.     

HIF-1α和MMP-2在大鼠脑出血灶周脑组织中的表达

目的：通过动态观察脑出血灶周脑组织中缺氧诱导因子(HIF)-1α和基质金属蛋白酶(MMP)-2的表达,探讨HIF-1α和MMP-2表达之间的联系。方法：50只SD大鼠随机分成假手术组和脑出血模型组,分别于术后6 h,24 h,72 h,7 d,21 d处死大鼠。RT-PCR方法检测脑出血灶周组织HIF-1α和MMP-2 mRNA的表达及免疫组织化学方法检测HIF-1α和MMP-2蛋白的表达,并对HIF-1α和MMP-2的表达进行相关分析。结果：模型组术后灶周组织出现HIF-1α, MMP-2 mRNA表达上调和大量黄色的HIF-1α,MMP-2蛋白阳性细胞,于24~72 h达高峰。HIF-1α mRNA及其蛋白表达分别与MMP-2 mRNA及其蛋白表达呈正相关(分别r=0.588, P=0.002; r=0.765, P＜0.001)。结论：脑出血灶周脑组织中HIF-1α和MMP-2的表达上调,且HIF-1α可能调控MMP-2的表达。     

脂多糖活化的大鼠肺泡巨噬细胞TNF-α产生的新机制

目的：探讨脂多糖（LPS）活化的肺泡巨噬细胞中低氧诱导因子－1α（HIF-1α）的表达及其在肺泡巨噬细胞产生肿瘤坏死因子α（TNF-α）中的作用。 方法： 应用HIF-1α 诱骗法（HIF-1α decoy）抑制其作用，并用Western blotting、半定量RT-PCR、酶联免疫吸附法（ELISA）分别检测HIF-1α蛋白、mRNA的表达和TNF-α的产生。 结果： HIF-1α蛋白含量在LPS组（1.95±0.57）和HIF-1α decoy组（1.89±0.59）均明显高于对照组（0.41±0.14，P＜0.05）；HIF-1α mRNA的表达在对照组（0.7838±0.3183）、LPS组（0.7622±0.3387）和HIF-1α decoy组（0.8155±0.3594）之间无显著差异（P>0.05）；LPS刺激24 h后，大鼠肺泡巨噬细胞TNF-α的产生明显高于对照组（61 ng/L vs 156 ng/L, P<0.05），抑制HIF-1α后TNF-α的产生明显低于LPS刺激组（90 ng/L vs 156 ng/L, P<0.05），但 HIF-1α decoy组TNF-α的产生仍然高于对照组（61 ng/L vs 94 ng/L, P<0.05）。 结论： 大鼠肺泡巨噬细胞在LPS的刺激下HIF-1α蛋白的稳定性增强使其表达明显上调，并且促进TNF-α的产生，提示HIF-1α在肺部慢性炎症性疾病如COPD的发病机制中可能有重要作用。     

低氧诱导因子-1α参与低氧预处理诱导的心肌血管生成

目的：研究低氧诱导因子-1α（HIF-1α）在低氧预处理（HPC）诱导心肌血管生成中的作用,并探讨其细胞信号转导的机制。方法：雄性SD大鼠随机分为对照组和HPC组。动物置于低氧仓内，持续通入10% O2和90% N2 4 h复制低氧预处理模型。用Ⅷ因子免疫组化染色检测HPC后7 d和21 d心肌组织微血管密度。制备心肌组织蛋白提取物，分别以磷酸化的细胞外信号调节激酶（ERK1/2）抗体和HIF-1α抗体检测HPC后1 d、7 d和21 d p-ERK1/2活性及HIF-1α表达。结果：HPC后7 d和21 d心肌组织微血管密度分别较对照组高36.99%和37.76%（均P<0.01）；p-ERK1/2活性在HPC后1d 较对照组高18.67%；HPC诱导HIF-1α的表达，其表达高峰出现在HPC后1 d。结论：HPC可以促进心肌微血管生成，其机制涉及ERKs活化和HIF-1α表达上调。     

Analysis of in vitro secretion profiles from adipose-derived cell populations

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Adipose tissue is an attractive source of cells for therapeutic purposes because of the ease of harvest and the high frequency of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Whilst it is clear that MSCs have significant therapeutic potential via their ability to secrete immuno-modulatory and trophic cytokines, the therapeutic use of mixed cell populations from the adipose stromal vascular fraction (SVF) is becoming increasingly common. METHODS: In this study we have measured a panel of 27 cytokines and growth factors secreted by various combinations of human adipose-derived cell populations. These were 1. co-culture of freshly isolated SVF with adipocytes, 2. freshly isolated SVF cultured alone, 3. freshly isolated adipocytes alone and 4. adherent adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADSCs) at passage 2. In addition, we produced an 'in silico' dataset by combining the individual secretion profiles obtained from culturing the SVF with that of the adipocytes. This was compared to the secretion profile of co-cultured SVF and adipocytes. Two-tailed t-tests were performed on the secretion profiles obtained from the SVF, adipocytes, ADSCs and the 'in silico' dataset and compared to the secretion profiles obtained from the co-culture of the SVF with adipocytes. A p-value of < 0.05 was considered statistically different. To assess the overall changes that may occur as a result of co-culture we compared the proteomes of SVF and SVF co-cultured with adipocytes using iTRAQ quantitative mass spectrometry. RESULTS: A co-culture of SVF and adipocytes results in a distinct secretion profile when compared to all other adipose-derived cell populations studied. This illustrates that cellular crosstalk during co-culture of the SVF with adipocytes modulates the production of cytokines by one or more cell types. No biologically relevant differences were detected in the proteomes of SVF cultured alone or co-cultured with adipocytes. CONCLUSIONS: The use of mixed adipose cell populations does not appear to induce cellular stress and results in enhanced secretion profiles. Given the importance of secreted cytokines in cell therapy, the use of a mixed cell population such as the SVF with adipocytes may be considered as an alternative to MSCs or fresh SVF alone.     

Effects of different fatty acids and dietary lipids on adiponectin gene expression in 3T3-L1 cells and C57BL/6J mice adipose tissue

Obesity is positively correlated to dietary lipid intake, and the type of lipid may play a causal role in the development of obesity-related pathologies. A major protein secreted by adipose tissue is adiponectin, which has antiatherogenic and antidiabetic properties. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of four different high-fat diets (enriched with soybean oil, fish oil, coconut oil, or lard) on adiponectin gene expression and secretion by the white adipose tissue (WAT) of mice fed on a selected diet for either 2 (acute treatment) or 60 days (chronic treatment). Additionally, 3T3-L1 adipocytes were treated for 48 h with six different fatty acids: palmitic, linoleic, eicosapentaenoic (EPA), docosahexaenoic (DHA), lauric, or oleic acid. Serum adiponectin concentration was reduced in the soybean-, coconut-, and lard-enriched diets in both groups. Adiponectin gene expression was lower in retroperitoneal WAT after acute treatment with all diets. The same reduction in levels of adiponectin gene expression was observed in epididymal adipose tissue of animals chronically fed soybean and coconut diets and in 3T3-L1 cells treated with palmitic, linoleic, EPA, and DHA acids. These results indicate that the intake of certain fatty acids may affect serum adiponectin levels in mice and adiponectin gene expression in mouse WAT and 3T3-L1 adipocytes. The effects appear to be time dependent and depot specific. It is postulated that the downregulation of adiponectin expression by dietary enrichment with soybean oil or coconut oil may contribute to the development of insulin resistance and atherosclerosis.