Arthroscopic footprint reconstruction of bursal-side delaminated rotator cuff tears using the suture-bridge technique

For a bursal-side retracted laminated rotator cuff tear, simple repair of the retracted bursal-side rotator cuff might be insufficient because the repaired tendon could remain as an intratendinous tear of the rotator cuff. We present a repair method for intratendinous rotator cuff tears using the suture-bridge technique. We believe that this method helps to preserve the remnant rotator cuff tendon without tissue damage and restores the normal rotator cuff footprint in bursal-side delaminated rotator cuff tears.     

Surgically repaired massive rotator cuff tears: MRI of tendon integrity, muscle fatty degeneration, and muscle atrophy correlated with intraoperative and clinical findings

OBJECTIVE: Our goal in this study was to evaluate by means of MRI the clinical significance of tendon integrity, muscle fatty degeneration, and muscle atrophy in surgically repaired massive rotator cuff tears and to correlate these and other prognostic factors with intraoperative and clinical findings. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty-eight surgically proven massive rotator cuff tears were retrospectively included in the study. Twenty-two patients underwent complete repair, and six patients underwent partial repair. Preoperative and postoperative clinical assessment was performed by using the University of California at Los Angeles score. Preoperative and postoperative MRI studies were evaluated for the presence and extent of rotator cuff tear and for the degree of fatty degeneration and atrophy of the rotator cuff muscles. RESULTS: At a mean 44.4 months' follow-up, 20 patients (71.4%) had a favorable result. A total of 25 patients (89.2%) showed postoperative full-thickness rotator cuff tear, 19 of which were reruptures. A sagittal preoperative rotator cuff tear of less than or equal to 34 mm showed a specificity of 100% for predicting a favorable outcome. A coronal postoperative rotator cuff tear of less than or equal to 34 mm showed a specificity of 85.7% and a positive predictive value of 92.9% for predicting a favorable outcome. A postoperative fatty degeneration of infraspinatus muscle less than or equal to 2 had a specificity of 87.5% and a positive predictive value of 90.9% for predicting a favorable outcome. CONCLUSION: Open repair of massive rotator cuff tears may reach a favorable outcome in a significant proportion of patients, despite a high rate of recurrent or residual tears. Oblique coronal sizes of the recurrent or residual tear of less than or equal to 34 mm and postoperative fatty degenerations of infraspinatus muscle of less than or equal to 2 may allow a favorable outcome.     

The coracoacromial arch: MR evaluation and correlation with rotator cuff pathology

The relative prevalence of various acromial shapes, appearance of the coracoacromial ligament and enthesophytes along the inferior aspect of the acromioclavicular joint in patients with and without rotator cuff tears were evaluated. Of 76 patients with clinical instability and impingement, 31 had a normal rotator cuff and 45 demonstrated a partial or full tear of the supraspinatus tendon at surgery. Results were compared with those from magnetic resonance (MR) scans of 57 asymptomatic volunteers. Of the 45 patients with a supraspinatus tear, 38% (17) had a flat acromial undersurface (type I), 40% (18) had a concave acromial undersurface (type II), 18% (8) had an anteriorly hooked acromion (type III), and 4% (2) had an inferiorly convex acromion (type IV). Among the 31 patients with a normal rotator cuff at surgery and the 57 asymptomatic volunteers, the respective prevalences of the type I acromion were 39% (12) and 44% (25), of type II 48% (15) and 35% (20), type III 3% (1) and 12% (7), and type IV 10% (3) and 9% (5). Shoulders with surgically proven rotator cuff tears showed a tendential association with a type III acromion (8/45) and statistically significant associations with a thickened coracoacromial ligament (17/45) and acromioclavicular enthesophytes (18/45). For the association between inferiorly directed acromioclavicular joint enthesophytes and rotator cuff tears, age appears to be a confounding factor. The type IV acromion, newly classified by this study, does not have a recognizable association with rotator cuff tears. Assessment of the osseous-ligamentous coracoacromial outlet by may prove helpful to the orthopedic surgeon in patients for whom surgical decompression is contemplated.     

Muscle atrophy as a consequence of rotator cuff tears: should we compare the muscles of the rotator cuff with those of the deltoid?

Purpose The quantitative assessment of muscle atrophy has a degree of importance in prognosticating rotator cuff treatment. However, it has been conjectured that muscle fat increases with aging. Therefore, we thought that the quantitative assessment of the supraspinatous would be better if made in comparison with a standard of reference such as the deltoid. Consequently, we performed a two-part study, first evaluating supraspinatous changes compared with the deltoid in “normals” with aging, and second, determining if in patients with cuff tears the supraspinatous fat exceeds that of the deltoid. Materials and methods In part 1, we studied 50 patients stratified by decade. In the first sitting, two blinded independent observers quantitatively graded the deltoid (with the supraspinatous obscured) and in the second sitting the same two observers quantitatively graded the supraspinatous (with the deltoid obscured). In part 2 of the study, we evaluated patients with moderate rotator cuff tears (>2 cm) and performed the same blinded, two-sitting, quantitative assessment (with the comparison muscle obscured). Results We found that muscle atrophy increases with age in patients without tears (0.011/0.028 U/year), although to a greater degree in the deltoid (p = 0.032). Also, in similarly aged patients, quantitative scores of the deltoid closely matched those of the supraspinatous (p = 0.071). Notably, however, in patients with large tears, the supraspinatous showed significant changes disproportionate to those of the deltoid, regardless of patient age (p = 0.044). Conclusion In the presence of a normal rotator cuff, fatty infiltration increases with age. Age-related changes occur more frequently in the deltoid, verifying this muscle’s potential as a standard of reference. With cuff tears, supraspinatous atrophy was disproportionate to that of the deltoid. Therefore, systematic assessment of supraspinatous muscle atrophy may be more reliable using the deltoid as a control for comparison than assessing it in isolation.     

Magnetic resonance imaging in acute and chronic rotator cuff tears

Magnetic resonance imaging has been assessed in patients with acute rotator cuff tears and normal radiographs (9 cases) and those with chronic tears and changes of cuff arthropathy (9 cases). All images were obtained using a low field strength system (FONAR 0.3 T). Particular attention was placed on the appearances of the tendon and the cuff muscles themselves. Six complete acute tears were clearly identified, but MRI failed to demonstrate two partial tears. Muscle bulk was preserved in all patients in this group. In contrast, all patients with cuff arthropathy had complete tears of the supraspinatus tendon with marked tendon retraction and associated muscle atrophy: these changes precluded primary surgical repair. MRI should be used to assess muscle atrophy preoperatively in those patients with acute tears. When plain radiographs demonstrate cuff arthropathy, the MRI appearances are predictable and primary repair is unlikely to be successful. Further imaging is therefore not indicated.     

MR evaluation of subscapularis tears.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this work was to describe the MR appearance of tears of the subscapularis tendon and compare the usefulness of different imaging planes as well as note the association of subscapularis tears with other rotator cuff tears and biceps tendon dislocations. METHOD: MR studies at 1.5 T over an 8 year interval were retrospectively assessed for the presence of a rotator cuff tear and/or tear of the subscapularis tendon. Images that showed a subscapularis tear were reviewed for the presence of a visible tear separately on the axial, coronal, and sagittal images. The MR studies were also evaluated for associated tears of the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and teres minor muscles as well as biceps tendon dislocation and the "naked humerus sign" on coronal images. Last, clinical records and surgical reports were reviewed. RESULTS: Forty-five (2%) of 2,167 rotator cuff tears involved the subscapularis; 27% were partial and 73% were complete tears. Tears were best seen in the sagittal oblique plane. Almost all subscapularis tears were an extension of typical rotator cuff tears: supraspinatus in 35 patients (79%), extending into infraspinatus tears in 25 (56%) and into teres minor tears in 2 patients (4%). Bicipital dislocations were seen in 22 patients (49%), and three complete tears of the biceps (7%) were noted as well. The naked humerus sign was demonstrated in 31 patients (69%). Surgical reports that confirmed the MR findings were available for 15 patients. CONCLUSION: About 2% of rotator cuff tears involve the subscapularis tendon. Most subscapularis tears are extensions of supraspinatus tears and frequently involve the biceps tendon.     

Value of CT bursography in the evaluation of rotator cuff tears

PURPOSE: To describe the technique and assess the value of subacromial CT bursography in patients with partial surface tear of the rotator cuff tendon. MATERIALS AND METHODS: 15 patients with shoulder pain suggestive of tendinopathy or tear of the rotator cuff were evaluated with subacromial CT bursography. RESULTS: Subacromial CT bursography was normal in 4 patients. Partial surface tear was detected in 7 patients [irregularities (n=2), defect (n=2), superficial tear (n=3)]. Full thickness tear was detected in 4 patients. CONCLUSION: The authors described the technique for subacromial CT bursography to visualize partial surface tears of the rotator cuff tendon. This simple and reliable technique could be an alternative to MR imaging, especially when MR evaluation is not possible.     

MR arthrography of the shoulder: comparison with conventional MR imaging

Twenty-three patients underwent both conventional MR imaging of the shoulder and MR shoulder arthrography for clinically suspected labral or rotator cuff abnormalities. Images obtained before and after contrast administration were studied independently, and without knowledge of clinical findings, by two radiologists for the presence of abnormalities of the glenoid labrum or rotator cuff. Results were correlated with surgical findings in all patients. Nine patients had surgically proved labral tears. MR arthrography detected all nine labral abnormalities, while six of the nine were missed on conventional MR imaging. Fourteen patients had surgically proved rotator cuff tears. MR arthrography detected 11 of the 14 tears and missed three partial tears on the bursal surface. Conventional MR imaging detected nine cuff tears and missed five tears; two of these were complete rotator cuff tears and three were partial tears of the undersurface of the rotator cuff. Our results suggest that MR arthrography enhances the accuracy of MR in the evaluation of the glenoid labrum and rotator cuff tendon.     

Histopathology of rotator cuff tears

The pathogenesis of rotator cuff tears is multifactorial. Tendon abnormalities of the rotator cuff include alteration of collagen fiber structure, tenocytes, cellularity, and vascularity. Ruptured tendons show marked collagen degeneration and disordered arrangement of collagen fibers. Fibroblast population decreases as the size of the tear in the rotator cuff increases. The larger fibroblast population seen in the smaller tears is also actively proliferating and is part of an active reparative process. Inflammatory cell infiltrate correlates inversely to rotator cuff tear size in the torn supraspinatus tendon samples, with larger tears showing a marked reduction in all cell types. As tear size increase, there is also a progressive decrease in the number of blood vessels. Whether rotator cuff tear heals spontaneously is an important pathologic and clinical question. Histologic changes indicative of repair and inflammation lead to consider biological options in addition to biomechanical treatment of the rotator cuff tears.     

Clinical and structural results of partial supraspinatus tears treated by subacromial decompression without repair

Patients with primary impingement and articular sided partial tears of the supraspinatus are often treated by subacromial decompression without repair, if the extent of the tear is estimated to be below 50% of tendon thickness. It has been questioned whether repair of these cuff lesions is necessary, because these tears could progress to full thickness tears with deteriorating clinical results. Our hypothesis was that subacromial decompression without repair of the supraspinatus tendon leads to significant clinical improvement for patients with grade I and II articular sided tears without progression to a full thickness tear on a regular basis. 46 consecutive patients (av. Age 59.2 years, range 33–76.6 years) were retrospectively reviewed after an average follow up of 50.3 months (36–86 months). 26 patients (43.5%) had a grade I tear according to Ellman, which was left alone, 20 patients suffered from a grade II tear, which was debrided. Clinical outcome was assessed with the ASES Score and ultrasound evaluation was performed on all patients to detect possible progression to a full thickness tear. The average ASES Score significantly improved from 37.4 to 86.6 points (p < 0.0001). The mean postoperative Constant Score was 87.6 points. Only three patients (6.5%) progressed to a full thickness tear detectable on ultrasound examination. Only one of these patients had a poor result with an ASES Score of 35 points, the other two were very satisfied and had an ASES score above 90 points. 8 patients showed no more signs of partial tearing on ultrasound and these patients had an average ASES Score of 93.1 points. Overall clinical outcome was rated excellent in 35 cases (76.1%), good in 5 (10.9%), average in 2 (4.3%) and poor in 4 (8.7%). Our results indicate that good and excellent results can be achieved mid- to long term by acromioplasty without repair of the rotator cuff in articular sided partial tears grade I and II. These results reach almost 95% of the value of a healthy shoulder. A better result on ultrasound examination was associated with a superior clinical outcome, while progression to a full thickness tear was rare.     

Intramuscular rotator cuff cysts: association with tendon tears on MRI and arthroscopy

OBJECTIVE: This study was designed to explore the relationship between intramuscular cysts and rotator cuff tendon tears. CONCLUSION: Intramuscular cysts are strongly associated with rotator cuff tendon tears. Identification of such a cyst should prompt a search for a rotator cuff tear. Findings on MR arthrography and surgery suggest that a delaminating component of the rotator cuff tear may lead to the development of these cysts and may explain the occasional discrepancy between location of tears and location of cysts.     

MR arthrography of partial thickness tears of the undersurface of the rotator cuff: an arthroscopic correlation

Objective Partial thickness tears of the undersurface (articular surface) of the rotator cuff (RTC) have been recognized increasingly in recent years as a source of treatable shoulder pain in the athletic population. This study evaluated the efficacy of MR arthrography (MR-ARTH) in diagnosing these tears.Design and patients The study design was a retrospective review of medical records of patients who had presented with refractory shoulder complaints and subsequently undergone MR arthrography with multiple signal MRI sequences followed by shoulder arthroscopy. Of particular interest were patients who had oblique T1 fat suppression (COT1FS), coronal oblique T2 (COT2), and coronal oblique T2 fat suppression (COT2FS) images taken. Seventy-six subjects met the study criteria. Investigators examined the MR-ARTH images from these patients' charts while blinded as to arthroscopic results, clinical signs and symptoms.Results Based on COT1FS images, investigators identified nine subjects as having had full thickness tears, 28 as having had partial thickness tears of the undersurface of the rotator cuff (PRTC), and 39 as having had intact RTC. These results were compared to actual findings at arthroscopy: nine full thickness tears, 26 of 28 with PRTC and 34 of 39 intact. The sensitivity of MR-ARTH was 84%, with a positive predictive value of 93%. The overall accuracy was 91% (69/76). The specificity was 96%. That is, if a PRTC was not seen on the MR-ARTH images, it was very unlikely to exist. COT2 and COT2FS sequences failed to increase sensitivity and overall efficacy of MRI.Conclusion PRTC can be diagnosed accurately by MR-ARTH with gadopentatate contrast. A COT1FS sequence is recommended for evaluation when tears are suspected.     

合并肩袖损伤的肩关节盂唇损伤的临床特征

目的 分析合并肩袖损伤的肩关节盂唇损伤患者的临床特征,提出其发病规律与病变特点,为临床微创手术治疗提供参考. 方法 本组50例,其中男28例,女22例;年龄30～58岁,平均45岁.记录患者的损伤机制、损伤时间、临床症状、体征,摄X线片和MRI.根据临床诊断,采用肩关节镜微创手术修复盂唇和肩袖损伤,记录损伤部位、范围及程度并进行分析.本组表现前盂唇损伤37例,上盂唇撕裂8例,后盂唇损伤5例;肩袖损伤轻度36例,中度10例,重度3例,特大裂口1例.其中肩袖前侧(冈上肌前侧)损伤21例,中部损伤(冈上肌与冈下肌部)16例,后部损伤(冈下肌部、小圆肌)13例.盂唇损伤的MRI表现为:三角外形消失,前关节囊扩大.肩袖损伤表现为:损伤部位高信号,连续性丧失. 结果 本组患者平均随访36个月(6～72个月),临床效果满意.美国加州洛杉矶大学关节功能评分标准(UCLA)评分:术前(15±3)分,术后(32±3)分(P＜0.01). 结论 创伤性肩关节盂唇损伤患者常同时合并肩袖损伤,临床上应予重视,避免遗漏诊断或耽误治疗.盂唇损伤范围与肩袖损伤部位存在对应关系,盂唇损伤范围越大,肩袖损伤越接近后侧.     

MR assessment of the repaired rotator cuff: prevalence, size, location, and clinical relevance of tendon rerupture

The objectives of this study were to use magnetic resonance (MR) imaging to evaluate the prevalence, size, location, and clinical relevance of tendon rerupture following complete repair of full-thickness rotator cuff tear (RCT). A total of 78 surgically proven full-thickness rotator cuff tears in 74 patients were retrospectively included in the study. Clinical assessment was performed using the University of California at Los Angeles score. Postoperative MR imaging was evaluated to determine prevalence, size, and location of tendon rerupture. At a mean 48.4 months’ follow-up, 62 shoulders (79.5%) had favorable outcomes and 45 shoulders (57.6%) showed rerupture on MR imaging studies. Reruptures were significantly more prevalent among patients with intermediate-to-bad outcomes (81.3%), with surgically demonstrated two-tendon tears (78.9%) or three-tendon tears (100%), and with preoperative fatty degeneration of the supraspinatus muscle greater than 1 (91.6%). Reruptures were also significantly larger in those subgroups. Complete repair of RCT of all sizes may have favorable outcomes in a significant proportion of patients in spite of a high prevalence of reruptures. Preoperative tear size and degree of muscle fatty degeneration influence the prevalence and rerupture size. After repair of supraspinatus tears, reruptures tend to invade the posterior aspect of the tendon.     

Anterior versus posterior, and rim-rent rotator cuff tears: prevalence and MR sensitivity

Purpose. To determine the relative distribution of the locations of rotator cuff tears, and the sensitivity of anterior versus posterior tears on MR images. Patients and methods. We identified 110 consecutive patients who had a shoulder MR and either a partial-thickness or a small full-thickness rotator cuff tear diagnosed at arthroscopy. From the arthroscopy videotapes, we classified the tears as centered in the anterior or posterior half of the cuff, and as either in the critical zone or adjacent to the bony insertion. The original MR interpretation was compared with the arthroscopic findings. MR sensitivity and patient age were compared between patients with tears in the anterior and posterior halves of the cuff. In addition, in patients with partial tears less than 2 cm in diameter, an age comparison between those with tears in the critical zone and those with articular surface tears adjacent to the bony insertion (rim-rent tear) was performed. Results. The tear was centered in the anterior half of the rotator cuff in 79% of the patients younger than 36 years old, and in 89% of the patients 36 years old and over. The average age of the patients with tears in the anterior half (44 years) was not significantly different from the average age of those with posterior tears (40 years)(P=0.23). The sensitivity of MR for anterior tears was 0.69, and for posterior tears it was 0.56 (P=0.17). The average age of the 9 patients with rim-rent tears was 31 years, while that of the 28 patients with similarly-sized partial tears not involving the insertion was 40 years old (P=0.048). Five of the nine rim-rent tears (0.56) were interpreted correctly on the original MR report; two of the other tears were misinterpreted as intratendinous fluid but were diagnosable in retrospect. Conclusion. Even in patients less than 36 years old, most partial and small full-thickness rotator cuff tears are centered in the anterior half of the supraspinatus. Although our figure for MR sensitivity for these tears is lower than in recent articles, we found no significant difference between the sensitivity of MR for diagnosing posterior tears versus tears in the anterior half of the supraspinatus tendon. Rim-rent tears can be mistaken for intratendinous signal, and should be carefully looked for in younger patients with shoulder pain.     

Full-thickness tears of the rotator cuff of the shoulder: diagnosis with MR imaging.

The purpose of this study was to describe MR findings in full-thickness tears of the rotator cuff. Of 102 shoulders examined by MR imaging, 31 were found to have a full-thickness tendon tear at arthroscopy/bursoscopy (five shoulders) or open surgery (26 shoulders). All shoulders were imaged in oblique coronal and axial planes. MR images of the 102 shoulders were evaluated for (1) the presence of fluid in the subacromial and subdeltoid bursae; (2) abnormal signal of the supraspinatus, subscapularis, infraspinatus, and teres minor tendons; (3) interruption of tendon continuity and thinning of the tendon; and (4) proximal retraction of the junction of the muscle and tendon. The presence or absence of each finding was determined by consensus of two radiologists, who interpreted the images without knowledge of the surgical findings. Results in those 31 shoulders with proved full-thickness tears were: fluid in the subacromial bursae (29 shoulders), interruption of tendinous continuity (22 shoulders), focally increased signal of the tendon equivalent to that of water (27 shoulders), and musculotendinous retraction (24 shoulders). The finding of subacromial fluid was a sensitive indicator (93%) of a full-thickness tear, and interruption of tendinous continuity was a specific finding (96%) in diagnosing a full-thickness tear. Our experience shows interruption of tendon continuity is the most specific MR finding of full-thickness rotator cuff tears, while subacromial fluid is the most common finding.     

Transosseous arthroscopic repair of partial articular-surface supraspinatus tendon tears

Partial articular-surface tendon avulsion (PASTA) lesions of the supraspinatus muscle represent a common cause for shoulder impairment and a preceding pathology for full-thickness tendon tears. Arthroscopic tendon repair is a possible surgical method of treatment. The purposes of cuff repair are anatomical tendon healing, prevention of tear size progression to completion and reduction of shoulder pain. In this report, we describe a transtendon arthroscopic technique of transosseous refixation of articular-side partial tears leaving the bursal layer of the supraspinatus tendon intact. A curved hollow needle is used to perform an all arthroscopic transosseous mattress suture. Thus, anatomical tendon-to-bone contact of the rotator cuff to the footprint is restored. Preliminary clinical results of 16 patients are convincing with significant pain relief and functional improvement.     

MR imaging of the shoulder: diagnosis of rotator cuff tears

Twenty-five patients with known or suspected tears of the rotator cuff in 26 shoulders underwent MR imaging. All patients also underwent arthrography or surgery. MR visualized abnormalities consistent with a tear in 20 of the 22 tears diagnosed by arthrography or surgery. In most cases, tears were seen as regions of increased signal intensity within the cuff on long-TR pulse sequences, although two cases simply showed an almost complete absence of normal cuff. The MR appearance of the two cases with partial tears was similar to that of full-thickness tears. Of the four cases with normal arthrograms, one case had MR findings consistent with a tear. We conclude that MR has good potential for the noninvasive diagnosis of rotator cuff tears. Its ultimate role in this diagnosis must await prospective studies comparing its accuracy with that of sonography, CT, and arthrography.     

Association of biceps tendon tears with rotator cuff abnormalities: degree of correlation with tears of the anterior and superior portions of the rotator cuff

OBJECTIVE: This study was performed to examine the relationship and association of abnormalities seen in the long head of the biceps brachii tendon to abnormal findings in the rotator cuff. MATERIALS AND METHODS: One hundred eleven patients underwent MR imaging for shoulder pain followed by arthroscopic or open shoulder surgery from January 1997 to December 2000. Patients were identified by a retrospective search, and all consecutive patients having undergone both MR imaging and surgery were included in the patient cohort. Official MR imaging interpretations were compared with operative reports, and all findings were recorded. RESULTS: Twenty-three patients were identified with partial- or full-thickness tears of the long head of the biceps tendon. The sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of unenhanced MR imaging of the shoulder for detecting these bicipital tears were 52%, 86%, and 79%, respectively. When a tear was present in the biceps tendon, the prevalence of supraspinatous, infraspinatus, and subscapularis tendon tears was 96.2%, 34.6%, and 47.1%, respectively. Patients with biceps tendon tears were significantly more likely to also have subscapularis tendon tears (p < 0.0001) and supraspinatous tendon tears (p < 0.008) than those patients who did not have biceps tendon tears. No significant relationship was found between the presence or absence of a biceps tendon tear and the presence or absence of a infraspinatus or teres minor tendon tear (p = 0.17). CONCLUSION: Tears of the long head of the biceps tendon have a statistically significant association with tears of the anterior and superior rotator cuff and are highly correlated with tears of the supraspinatous and subscapularis tendons. When tears of these tendons are detected, specific attention directed toward the long biceps tendon is warranted to characterize the status of this structure that provides additional stability to the shoulder joint.