RANKL和M-CSF诱导THP-1细胞向破骨细胞样细胞分化的研究

目的探讨建立有效诱导THP-1细胞分化为破骨细胞样细胞的方法。方法 THP-1细胞首先在TPA的刺激下分化为贴壁细胞,然后在破骨细胞生成因子（RANKL）和巨噬细胞集落刺激因子（M-CSF）的联合诱导下向破骨细胞样细胞分化。通过抗酒石酸酸性磷酸酶（TRAP）染色检测分化来的细胞是否为破骨细胞样细胞。结果 THP-1在RANKL和M-CSF的作用下分化为TRAP阳性的破骨细胞样细胞。结论 RANKL和M-CSF可联合诱导THP-1细胞分化为破骨细胞样细胞。     

类风湿关节炎中白三烯B4间接分化破骨细胞的实验研究

目的探讨在类风湿关节炎（RA）中,白三烯B4（LTB4）能否通过促进核因子Kappa B受体激活剂配体（RANKL）的表达,起到间接分化破骨细胞的作用.方法利用RA滑膜成纤维细胞（RAFLs）和人外周血单核细胞的共培养体系,对照组2.5 ng/ml巨噬细胞集落刺激因子（M-CSF）刺激、实验a组2.5 ng/ml M-CSF＋10-8mol/L LTB4刺激、实验b组2.5 ng/ml M-CSF＋10-8 mol/L LTB4＋100 ng/ml骨保护素（OPG）刺激,培养3周后行抗酒石酸酸性磷酸酶（TRAP）细胞化学染色,通过计数多核性TRAP酶染色阳性的破骨细胞样细胞,比较各组的分化破骨细胞作用.结果对照组几乎没有破骨细胞样细胞,而实验a组则出现较多的破骨细胞样细胞,实验b组则与对照组相似,几乎没有破骨细胞样细胞.结论在RA中,LTB4能够通过促进RAFLs细胞RANKL的表达来间接分化破骨细胞.     

白三烯B4对人破骨细胞直接分化和激活功能的实验研究

目的探讨白三烯(LT)B4能否不依赖细胞核因子资B受体激活剂配体(RANKL)直接促进人破骨细胞的分化和激活。方法阳性对照组用25ng/ml巨噬细胞集落刺激因子(M-CSF)和30ng/mlsRANKL来诱导人外周血单核细胞的培养,实验组用25ng/mlM-CSF和10-9、10-8、10-7mol/LLTB4来诱导。通过抗酒石酸磷酸酶(TRAP)染色及10mm×10mm玻片上多核性TRAP染色(+)的破骨细胞样细胞计数,来确定LTB4的直接分化作用,并与RANKL的作用比较。通过甲苯胺蓝染色10mm×10mm牛皮质骨片上的骨质吸收陷窝并计数,来确定LTB4直接功能激活作用,并与RANKL的作用比较。结果当M-CSF存在时,LTB4能够直接分化人外周血单核细胞为破骨细胞样细胞,并能激活其骨质吸收功能。且随LTB4浓度的增加而增强,但要弱于RANKL。结论LTB4对人破骨细胞有不依赖RANKL的直接分化和激活作用。     

间充质干细胞对破骨细胞形成的影响

近年来研究发现间充质干细胞(MSCs)具有组织修复及免疫抑制作用,因此用于多种自身免疫性及退行性疾病的治疗。MSCs的成骨分化功能在骨重建过程中发挥着重要作用。已有研究将MSCs注入胶原诱导的关节炎大鼠及类风湿关节炎(RA)患者的炎性关节中以进行治疗,然而,MSCs如何在关节中发挥作用尚未阐明,且关于MSCs对破骨细胞形成及骨再吸收作用的影响的研究鲜有报道。在生理条件下,MSCs可通过生成核因子κB (NF-κB)受体激活蛋白配体(RANKL)及巨噬细胞集落刺激因子(M-CSF)等促破骨细胞形成因子促进破骨细胞形成;但在炎性条件下,MSCs则可通过生成护骨因子(OPG)抑制破骨细胞的形成。因此MSCs具有双重作用,其对破骨细胞形成的作用取决于所处的炎性环境,这些作用有望用于骨破坏相关炎性疾病的治疗。     

T淋巴细胞在雌激素缺乏状态下对破骨细胞的影响

雌激素缺乏是导致绝经后女性破骨细胞活化的重要因素。雌激素缺乏一方面可促进胸腺T细胞输出，诱导T细胞活化和增殖，导致骨髓活化T细胞增多而促进破骨细胞形成；另一方面通过促炎细胞因子进一步增强活化T细胞的破骨作用。活化的T细胞不仅表达核因子-κB受体活化因子配体（RANKL）和巨噬细胞集落刺激因子（M—CSF）等促骨吸收因子，抑制成骨细胞分化和形成，直接参与破骨过程；而且其产生的肿瘤坏死因子．仪还可与骨髓基质细胞表达的RANKL和M-CSF协同作用，增强破骨前体细胞对RANKL的敏感性，促进破骨细胞的发育和功能，引起骨形成和骨吸收的失衡，最终导致骨丢失增加。     

破骨细胞分化发育中的信号转导及转录因子研究进展

破骨细胞是骨组织中特有的一种多核细胞,在骨吸收过程中起重要作用。破骨细胞分化过程中,巨噬细胞集落刺激因子（M-CSF）与细胞核因子κB受体活化因子配基（RANKL）结合于细胞表面受体上,提供破骨细胞存活、增殖的信号并激活相应的信号转导通路,使分化中的破骨细胞表达特异性基因,使成熟的破骨细胞执行骨吸收功能。在此过程中,转录因子（PU．1）、核转录因子κB（NF-κB）、活化T细胞核因子c1（NFATc1）、     

糖皮质激素诱导骨质疏松的细胞及分子学机制

长期大剂量使用糖皮质激素会诱发骨质疏松 ,其机制为糖皮质激素抑制成骨细胞的增殖及分化 ,促进成骨细胞的凋亡 ,并降低其功能 ,使骨形成延迟并减少。它可抑制破骨细胞的产生 ,但是否影响破骨细胞的活性则尚不清楚 ;此外 ,它也可促进破骨细胞凋亡。     

糖皮质激素诱导骨质疏松的细胞及分子学机制

长期大剂量使用糖皮搏击激素会诱导骨质疏松,其机制为糖皮质激素抑制成骨细胞的增殖及分化,促进成骨细胞的凋亡,并降低其功能,使骨形成延迟并减少。它可抑制破骨细胞的产生,但是否影响破骨细胞的活性则尚不清楚;此外,它也可促进破骨细胞凋亡。     

阻断酸敏感离子通道1a对酸诱导的破骨细胞形成及其骨吸收的影响

目的观察酸敏感离子通道1a(acid-sensing ion channel 1a,ASIC1a)介导酸诱导的破骨细胞形成和骨吸收的作用。方法建立巨噬细胞集落刺激因子(maerophage colony stimulating factor,M-CSF)和细胞分化因子(receptor activator of nuclear foetor-κB ligand,RANKL)体外诱导骨髓单核细胞分化为破骨细胞,慢病毒为载体转染细胞沉默ASIC1a,并通过抗酒石酸酸性磷酸酶(tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase,TRACP)染色和骨吸收实验检测破骨细胞的形成及其骨吸收功能,采用Western blotting法检测活化T细胞核因子c1(nuclear factor of activated T-cells cytoplasmic 1,NFATc1)蛋白的表达。结果阻断ASIC1a可明显抑制酸诱导的破骨细胞的形成及其骨吸收功能(P=0.000),阻断ASIC1a可抑制酸诱导的NFATc1蛋白表达(P=0.000)。结论阻断ASIC1a对酸诱导的破骨细胞形成和骨吸收具有明显抑制作用,其机制可能是抑制转录因子NFATc1蛋白的表达。     

雌激素对成骨细胞、破骨细胞作用的新进展

成骨细胞和破骨细胞均表达雌激素受体,但雌激素对两者的作用远未阐明.雌激素能诱导成骨细胞产生骨保护素(osteoprotegerin,OPG).当雌激素缺乏时,T细胞分泌TNF和IL-7等增加,作用于破骨细胞加速骨丢失;绝经后FSH升高,可直接作用于破骨细胞增强其功能.雌激素亦可通过非基因组效应减缓成骨细胞凋亡,加速破骨细胞凋亡.最近研究发现,雌激素通过ERα可直接阻止骨丢失,可能机制是诱导成骨细胞和破骨细胞表达FasL,以旁分泌和自分泌的方式促进破骨细胞凋亡.     

Detection of transcripts for the receptor for macrophage colony-stimulating factor, c-fms, in murine osteoclasts.

Macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), whose action is restricted to the cell populations of the mononuclear phagocyte system, has recently been found to be required for osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption. To investigate the cells involved in the action of M-CSF in these processes, expression of c-fms mRNA, encoding the M-CSF receptor, was studied by in situ hybridization. Paws from murine embryos and newborn mice, tibiae from 2-day-old animals, as well as isolated osteoclasts, were hybridized with a c-fms-specific RNA probe. In bone, c-fms mRNA was detected only in cells at the late stages of osteoclastogenesis and in mature osteoclasts. The findings strengthen the relation between osteoclasts and the mononuclear phagocyte system. Furthermore, they suggest that M-CSF acts directly on osteoclast precursors and on mature osteoclasts during osteoclastogenesis.     

Distinct roles of p130Cas and c-Cbl in adhesion-induced or macrophage colony-stimulating factor-mediated signaling pathways in prefusion osteoclasts

Both p130Cas and c-Cbl have been reported to play critical roles in osteoclast function as downstream targets of c-Src kinase. The purpose of this study was to examine adhesion- and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF)-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of these two molecules in prefusion osteoclasts (pOCs) derived from either Src+/? or Src-/- mice and to directly compare the roles of p130Cas and c-Cbl in osteoclast function. Cell attachment of normal pOCs to vitronectin induces tyrosine phosphorylation of p130Cas and, to a much lesser extent, of c-Cbl. Treatment with M-CSF results in further tyrosine phosphorylation of both p130Cas and c-Cbl, suggesting cooperation between alpha v beta 3 integrin and the M-CSF receptor, c-Fms, in osteoclasts. However, M-CSF induces tyrosine phosphorylation of c-Cbl, but not p130Cas in pOCs in suspension, confirming the role of c-Cbl as a downstream effector of c-Fms. This observation also suggests that M-CSF-mediated p130Cas phosphorylation requires ligand engagement of alpha v beta 3 integrin. In Src-deficient pOCs plated on vitronectin, although M-CSF highly induces Cbl phosphorylation, it does not affect p130Cas phosphorylation. These results suggest that in osteoclasts 1) tyrosine phosphorylation of p130Cas depends on alpha v beta 3 integrin-mediated cell adhesion, even in the presence of M-CSF; 2) on the other hand, c-Cbl phosphorylation is predominantly activated by M-CSF and is independent of cell adhesion; 3) lastly, although c-Src is essential for both adhesion- and M-CSF-mediated phosphorylation of p130Cas, it is clearly not required for c-Cbl phosphorylation in M-CSF-treated pOCs. Taken together, p130Cas and c-Cbl play distinct roles in the signal transduction pathways that mediate cytoskeletal organization in osteoclasts.     

Effect of macrophage colony-stimulating factor on in vitro osteoclast generation and bone resorption.

To investigate the role of recombinant human macrophage colony-stimulating factor (rhM-CSF) on in vitro bone resorption, two bone explants, each at a different developmental stage, were adopted, namely 1) radii and 2) metatarsals of 17-day-old embryonic mice. At this stage of gestation, bone resorption in the radii is exclusively dependent upon fusion of osteoclast precursors and activation of mature osteoclasts, whereas in metatarsals it is dependent upon the generation of new osteoclasts. rhM-CSF showed no effect in radii, but stimulated 45Ca release in metatarsals, when they were either intact or periosteum stripped in coculture with embryonal liver as a source of hemopoietic progenitors. The rhM-CSF-induced increase in 45Ca release was paralleled by a higher number of osteoclasts. The stimulating effect was found to be in a concentration range between 250-500 U/ml M-CSF. The action of rhM-CSF was blocked by irradiation, indicating that it is dependent upon cell proliferation. These results, thus, show that M-CSF stimulates bone resorption only when it is dependent on generation of new osteoclasts. M-CSF does not appear to have any effect on the activity of mature osteoclasts. The mechanism of action might be direct on osteoclast precursors or indirect on accessory cells influencing osteoclast generation.     

Presence of osteoclast precursors in colonies cloned in the presence of hematopoietic colony-stimulating factors

Osteoclasts are derived from hematopoietic stem cells, but the relationship between osteoclast precursors (OCPs) and hematopoietic colony-forming cells (CFCs) has not yet been clarified. Although osteoclasts share certain cell surface markers and growth factor requirements with their macrophage and monocyte cell lineages, osteoclasts are a different lineage with regard to the requirement for signaling via c-Kit. To investigate whether CFCs are able to differentiate into osteoclasts, we performed in vitro studies of osteoclastogenesis. We performed progenitor assays in the presence of hematopoietic colony-stimulating factors. Primary colonies were plucked and examined for their potential to differentiate into osteoclasts. We found that osteoclasts are present in colonies elicited by macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) and receptor activator of nuclear factor kB ligand (RANKL) in semisolid cultures. Moreover, a part of the cells composing the colonies elicited by granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) or M-CSF alone possessed the potential to differentiate into osteoclasts. These OCPs in the colonies were enriched in the c-Fms+ large-sized cell fraction and had a foamy cell morphology, like mature macrophages. A small number of cells in M-CSF-promoted and GM-CSF-promoted colonies formed secondary colonies in the semisolid medium containing these factors. The frequency of OCPs in these secondary colonies elicited by M-CSF was 10 times higher than that elicited by GM-CSF. Multiple origins of OCPs that differentiate into mature osteoclasts are proposed based on the observation that osteoclasts could be generated from OCPs that emerged from CFCs induced under different conditions or developmental stages.     

Macrophage colony stimulating factor restores in vivo bone resorption in the op/op osteopetrotic mouse

The op/op variant of murine osteopetrosis is a recessive mutation characterized by impaired bone resorption due to lack of osteoclasts. Cultured osteoblasts and fibroblasts from this mutant do not secrete M-CSF activity and resident macrophages are absent in bone marrow. This failure has been related to a mutation within the M-CSF coding region. We report now that the administration of recombinant human M-CSF (rhM-CSF) corrects in vivo the impaired bone resorption in this animal. The treatment restores the bone marrow cavity virtually absent in the op/op animal and induces the appearance of resorbing osteoclasts and of resident bone marrow macrophages. This proves that the deficiency of M-CSF is the cause of the op/op bone disorder and that this cytokine is directly or indirectly necessary for physiological osteoclastogenesis, the resulting bone resorption and for the establishment of bone marrow hemopoiesis.     

Increased osteoclast formation and activity by peripheral blood mononuclear cells in chronic liver disease patients with osteopenia

Osteoporosis is a common complication of chronic liver disease, and the underlying mechanisms are not understood. We aimed to determine if osteoclasts develop from osteoclast precursors in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of chronic liver disease patients with osteopenia compared with controls. PBMCs were isolated and fluorescence-activated cell sorting was performed to quantify the activated T lymphocyte population and receptor activator of nuclear factor kappabeta ligand (RANKL) expression. The activated T lymphocyte populations were comparable for all 3 groups, and RANKL was not detectable. The percentage of CD14+CD11b+ cells containing osteoclast precursors was comparable between the 3 groups. To assess the formation and functional activity of osteoclasts formed from circulating mononuclear cells, PBMCs were cultured (1) without addition of cytokines, (2) with macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), (3) with M-CSF and osteoprotegerin, and (4) with M-CSF and RANKL. The number of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase-positive multinucleated cells and bone resorption was assessed. PBMCs from chronic liver disease patients with osteopenia formed more osteoclast-like cells, which, when cultured in the presence of M-CSF and RANKL resorbed more bone than controls. The number of osteoclast-like cells and the amount of bone resorption correlated with lumbar bone densities. Addition of M-CSF increased numbers of osteoclast-like cells formed in healthy controls; however, this was not observed in either of the chronic liver disease groups. Plasma levels of M-CSF were elevated in both patient groups compared with healthy controls. CONCLUSION: Circulating mononuclear cells from chronic liver disease patients with osteopenia have a higher capacity to become osteoclasts than healthy controls or chronic liver disease patients without osteopenia. This could partially be due to priming with higher levels of M-CSF in the circulation.     

FLT3 ligand can substitute for macrophage colony-stimulating factor in support of osteoclast differentiation and function.

Although bone resorption and osteoclast numbers are reduced in osteopetrotic (op/op) mice, osteoclasts are nevertheless present and functional, despite the absence of macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF). This suggests that alternative factors can partly compensate for the crucial actions of M-CSF in osteoclast induction. It was found that when nonadherent bone marrow cells were incubated in RANKL with Flt3 ligand (FL) without exogenous M-CSF, tartrate-resistance acid phosphatase (TRAP)-positive cells were formed, and bone resorption occurred. Without FL, only macrophagelike TRAP-negative cells were present. Granulocyte-macrophage CSF, stem cell factor, interleukin-3, and vascular endothelial growth factor could not similarly replace the need for M-CSF. TRAP-positive cell induction in FL was not due to synergy with M-CSF produced by the bone marrow cells themselves because FL also enabled their formation from the hemopoietic cells of op/op mice, which lack any M-CSF. FL appeared to substitute for M-CSF by supporting the differentiation of adherent cells that express mRNA for RANK and responsiveness to RANKL. To determine whether FL can account for the compensation for M-CSF deficiency that occurs in vivo, FL signaling was blockaded in op/op mice by the injection of soluble recombinant Flt3. It was found that the soluble receptor induced a substantial decrease in osteoclast number, strongly suggesting that FL is responsible for the partial compensation for M-CSF deficiency that occurs in these mice.     

Macrophage colony-stimulating factor induces substantial osteoclast generation and bone resorption in human bone marrow cultures

Macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) is essential for murine osteoclast formation and its role in human hematopoiesis in vitro is not fully defined. Therefore, we have investigated the effect of M-CSF on the formation of human osteoclasts in vitro. M-CSF was found to induce substantial bone resorption and osteoclast formation in a dose- responsive and time-dependent manner above that induced by 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25 vitamin D3) in cultures of human bone marrow (BM) stromal cells sedimented onto devitalized bone. By day 14 there was a mean of approximately 50% of the surfaces of the bone slices resorbed compared with only 6% in cultures treated with 1,25 vitamin D3 alone. Osteoclasts were identified as 23c6+ cells (an antibody that recognizes the vitronectin receptor), 87.5% of which coexpressed the calcitonin receptor. The number of 23c6+ cells correlated strongly with bone resorption spatially, and in a dose-responsive and time-dependent manner; the correlation coefficient in cultures treated with 1,25 vitamin D3 alone was 0.856 and those treated with both M-CSF and 1,25 vitamin D3 was 0.880. Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, IL-1 beta, IL-3, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, transforming growth factor-beta, leukemia inhibitory factor, and IL-11 did not increase bone resorption above that in 1,25 vitamin D3-treated cultures. We also found that 1,25 vitamin D3 increased, to a minor but significant degree, both bone resorption and the concentration of M-CSF in the culture supernatants above that in vehicle-treated cultures, indicating that M-CSF is present in our BM cultures, but that there is insufficient to induce substantial osteoclast formation. These results define a critical role for M-CSF in the formation of human osteoclasts.     

Mechanisms involved in bone resorption

Osteoclasts, which are present only in bone, are multinucleated giant cells with the capacity to resorb mineralized tissues. These osteoclasts are derived from hemopoietic progenitors of the monocyte-macrophage lineage. Osteoblasts or bone marrow-derived stromal cells are involved in osteoclastogenesis through a mechanism involving cell-to-cell contact with osteoclast progenitors. Experiments on the osteopetrotic op/op mouse model have established that a product ofosteo blasts, macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), regulates differentiation of osteoclast progenitors into osteoclasts. Recent discovery of osteoclast differentiation factor (ODF)/receptor activator of NF-κ Bligand (RANKL) allowed elucidation of the precise mechanism by which osteoblasts regulate osteoclastic bone resorption. Treatment of osteoblasts with bone-resorbing factors up-regulated expression of RANKL mRNA. In contrast, TNF α stimulates osteoclast differentiation in the presence of M-CSF through a mechanism independent of the RANKL system. IL-1 also directly acts on mature osteoclasts as a potentiator of osteoclast activation. In addition, TGF-β super family members, such as bone morphogenetic proteins(BMPs) strikingly enhanced osteoclast differentiation from their progenitors and survival of mature osteoclasts induced by RANKL. These results suggest that BMP-mediated signals cross-communicate with RANKL-mediated ones in inducing osteoclast differentiation and function. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Bifurcation of osteoclasts and dendritic cells from common progenitors

Osteoclasts and dendritic cells are derived from monocyte/macrophage precursor cells; however, how their lineage commitment is regulated is unknown. This study investigated the differentiation pathways of osteoclasts and dendritic cells from common precursor cells at the single-cell level. Osteoclastogenesis induced by macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) and receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappaB ligand (RANKL) or tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) is completely inhibited by addition of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) or interleukin-3 at early stages of differentiation. GM-CSF-treated cells express both c-Fms and RANK and also low levels of CD11c and DEC205, which are detected on dendritic cells. Addition of GM-CSF also reduces expression of both c-Fos and Fra-1, which is an important event for inhibition of osteoclastogenesis. Overexpression of c-Fos by retroviral infection or induction in transgenic mice can rescue a failure in osteoclast differentiation even in the presence of GM-CSF. By contrast, differentiation into dendritic cells is inhibited by M-CSF, indicating that M-CSF and GM-CSF reciprocally regulate the differentiation of both lineages. Dendritic cell maturation is also inhibited when c-Fos is expressed at an early stage of differentiation. Taken together, these findings suggest that c-Fos is a key mediator of the lineage commitment between osteoclasts and dendritic cells. The lineage determination of osteoclast progenitors seen following GM-CSF treatment functions through the regulation of c-Fos expression.