Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy, endourology and open surgery: the management and follow-up of 200 patients with urinary calculi

The management and follow up of 200 consecutive patients with renal and ureteric calculi are presented. The primary treatment of 185 (92.5%) was by extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy (ESWL), of whom three (1.6)%) with large calculi underwent percutaneous nephrolithotripsy (PCNL) prior to ESWL as a planned combined procedure. Twelve (6%) were treated by PCNL or ureterorenoscopy (URS) as their definitive treatment and three (1.5%) by conventional open renal and ureteric surgery. The average in-patient stay was 3.8 days and most returned to normal activity within one day of discharge. Of the 185 patients 102 (55%) required no analgesia after treatment by ESWL, 29 (15.6%) required parenteral analgesia and the rest were comfortable with oral non-narcotic medication. Thirty (16%) required auxillary treatment by percutaneous nephrostomy (PCN), PCNL and URS following ESWL for obstructive complications from stone particles. Two required further ESWL and one PCNL at three months for large fragments. Overall, open surgery was required for only 1% of renal calculi and 13% of ureteric stones. These results are consistant with the extensive West German experience confirming that most urinary calculi are now best managed by ESWL and endoscopic techniques. Where these facilities are available open surgery should only be necessary for less than 5% of upper urinary tract stones.     

经皮肾镜碎石取石术的并发症的防治

随着腔内泌尿外科手术技术的发展，经皮肾镜碎石术（PCNL）已经成为目前治疗上尿路结石的主要手段之一。与开放性手术相比较，它具有创伤小、风险低、并发症少和恢复快等优点。但PCNL也存在一些并发症，如术后出血、感染、周围器官损伤、疼痛等。本文结合国内外相关文献及个人体会，对这些常见的并发症的防治进行讨论。     

B超引导下经皮肾镜取石术治疗上尿路结石1289例临床总结

目的 探讨B超引导下PCNL治疗上尿路结石的有效性与安全性. 方法 2004年6月至2009年7月行超声引导下PCNL 1289例.其中输尿管上段结石386例;肾单发结石463例,多发结石355例,鹿角形结石85例.结石大小0.8 cm×1.2 cm～9.0 cm×5.3 cm,平均2.1 cm×3.1 cm.伴不同程度肾积水935例. 结果 1289例无中转开放及死亡.平均手术时间90(55～220)min,平均术中出血量175(60～800)ml.术中、术后输血31例,术后因出血行超选择性肾动脉栓塞术14例(1.09%).一期单通道取石1105例,二通道取石108例,三通道取石76例.一期结石取净率85.03%(1096/1289);193例结石残留者中,67例行ESWL,126例行二期PCNL,其中85例结石取净.总结石取净率91.62%(1181/1289).结论 B超引导下PCNL治疗上尿路结石具有定位准确、工作通道建立安全简便、结石取净率高、创伤小、并发症少等特点,手术适应证选择、手术技巧掌握、相应配套设施的保障是PCNL成功的关键.     

Infective lithiasis

"Infection Lithiasis" refers to calculi that occur with persistent urinary tract infection. Stones composed of magnesium ammonium phosphate (struvite) and carbonate apatite, called "triple phosphate" stones, are the more common type of infection lithiasis. These stones are also called "staghorn" calculi because they may grow rapidly and fill the entire collecting system. They form during urinary infection with urea-splitting micro-organism. They may originate de novo or complicate a lithiasis when pre-existing stones are colonized with urea-splitting bacteria. They represent about 2-3% of stones referred for laboratory analysis. This article reviews the epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, and management of struvite stones. A singular pathologic entity recently described, called "encrusted cystitis or encrusted pyelitis", mainly caused by Corynebacterium urealyticum is also review. Infection lithiases caused by non-urease-producing bacteria may also occur and are examined in this article. Finally, the controversial role of nanobacteria in nephrolithiasis is discussed.     

Current concepts in the relative efficacy of percutaneous nephrostolithotomy and extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy

Summary Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) and percutaneous nephrostolithotomy (PCNL) have largely replaced open surgical operations for the management of upper urinary tract calculi. ESWL is generally preferred for calculi less than or equal to 2 cm as morbidity is lower than PCNL and success rates comparable. However, the morbidity of ESWL rises substantially for stones greater than 2 cm, while the stone-free rate is lessened compared to PCNL (41% vs. 82%, p<0.01), suggesting that PCNL is preferred for most larger stones. Results for staghorn calculi comparable to anatrophic nephrolithotomy with lowered morbidity may be achieved with PCNL followed by ESWL. PCNL is also preferred for stone-containing, calyceal diverticula.     

经皮肾穿刺微造瘘输尿管镜治疗上尿路结石(附156例报告)

目的探讨经皮肾穿刺微造瘘输尿管镜治疗上尿路结石的方法及疗效。方法采用经皮肾穿刺微造瘘输尿管镜下气压弹道碎石处理上尿路结石156冽。结果156例均一期手术取石,单通道取石126例．双通道取石25例,三通道取石5例。其中1次取石120例,2次取石28冽,3次取石8例。136例结石全部取尽。平均手术时间90min,平均出血量50m1,术后平均住院时间8d。所有病例均无严重手术并发症。结论经皮。肾穿刺微造瘘取石术治疗上尿路结石具有创伤小、并发症少、疗效好、恢复快、结石清除率高等优点．值得推广应用．     

Modern Stone Management in Children

Shock wave lithotripsy (SWL) for the treatment of pediatric stone disease was initiated almost three decades ago, ushering in a new era of noninvasive techniques for stone disintegration in children. Initially, all urinary stones—regardless of their size, site, or composition—were treated by this modality, eliminating the necessity of open surgery. SWL became less painful and more accessible for children when modern modular lithotripters, with smaller foci and better stone-targeting options, were introduced. Stone-free rates (SFRs) vary between 46% and 100%, depending on patient, lithotripter, and stone factors. Short- and long-term complications are rare. Recent refinements in endoscope design and intrarenal and ureteral imaging have added percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) and ureteroscopy (URS) as alternatives to SWL for stone disintegration in children and infants. The main advantage of these modalities over SWL is their ability to actively remove stone fragments from the urinary system to achieve better SFRs compared with SWL in ureteral and large renal calculi. Current stone management guidelines for children have been established and updated by the European Association of Urology. Hand- and robot-assisted laparoscopic pyelolithtomy have recently been introduced for special cases. We conclude that SWL is an effective and safe treatment modality for small renal stones and for upper ureteral calculi but not for cysteine stones. URS is very efficient for distal ureteral stones and recently has become more popular for renal stones. PCNL is the first-line treatment for large or staghorn calculi.     

Percutaneous nephrolithotomy for complex pediatric renal calculus disease

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Pediatric renal calculus disease has been a management dilemma in view of the concern about the effects of the various treatment modalities on the growing kidney, the significant recurrence rate, and the long-term outcome. We report our experience with percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) monotherapy in staghorn or complex pediatric renal calculi. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed the case records of 116 patients younger than 15 years who underwent PCNL. The stones included 56 complex calculi. We defined complex calculi as either staghorn (complete or partial) or those with a large bulk and involving more than one calix, the upper ureter, or both. RESULTS: Complete clearance was achieved in 50 patients (89.8%). Of these, 22 (39%) required a single tract, while 34 (61%) required multiple tracts. With subsequent SWL, the clearance rate increased to 96%. The average hemoglobin drop was 1.9 g/dL. Assessing the factors affecting the hemoglobin drop, the number of tracts and the size of tracts were found to be significant (P<0.01). The average change in the serum creatinine concentration between the preoperative and postoperative measurements was +0.03 mg/dL and was not different in patients with a single tract and those with multiple tracts (+0.02 and +0.04 mg/dL, respectively; P=NS). Intravenous urography done in 36 renal units postoperatively revealed good function in all. A DMSA renal scan in six children showed no scar. CONCLUSIONS: Monotherapy with PCNL is safe and effective in the management of staghorn and complex renal calculi in single hospital stay. Ultrasound-guided peripheral caliceal puncture and limiting the tract dilatation to 22F are important factors in reducing the blood loss. Multiple tracts increase the hemoglobin drop but are not associated with an increased risk of complications (bleeding, postoperative infection, and prolonged urinary leak). Also, there is no deterioration in renal function after either single- or multiple-tract PCNL.     

三种经皮肾穿刺取石术治疗上尿路结石对照分析

目的：比较李氏肾镜与标准经皮肾镜及微创经皮肾输尿管镜治疗上尿路结石的有效性与安全性,提高上尿路结石的治疗水平.方法：2005年1月～2009年1月,三种经皮肾穿刺取石术治疗上尿路结石132例,其中包括肾结石87例（包括肾脏单发及多发结石56例,鹿角型结石31例）,输尿管上段结石45例.标准经皮肾镜取石术34例,年龄34～78岁,平均57岁;结石大小2.3～5.8 cm,平均3.5 cm;鹿角型结石14例.微创经皮肾输尿管镜取石术52例,年龄31～77岁,平均51岁;结石大小2.1～5.0 cm,平均3.3 cm;鹿角型结石8例.经皮李氏肾镜取石术46例,年龄29～81岁,平均55岁;结石大小2.0～5.5 cm,平均3.0 cm;鹿角型结石9例.对三组患者手术时间、留置造瘘管时间、I期结石清除率及手术出血进行比较.结果：李氏肾镜治疗输尿管上端结石（L4）手术时间（56±5）min,治疗上尿路结石I期手术清除率为80.43%,出血量为（156±38）ml,输血率2.17%,与标准经皮肾镜及微创经皮肾输尿管镜比较,差异均有统计学意义（P＜0.05）.对李氏肾镜治疗6例肾盂单发结石患者实行＂无管化＂,均恢复较好,无一例发生出血、漏尿及感染.结论：李氏肾镜在微造瘘经皮肾手术中较标准肾镜和输尿管镜代肾镜具有操作更简化、手术效率更高、剩余结石更少、并发症减少等优点.     

伴脊柱畸形上尿路结石的经皮肾镜取石术

目的 探讨应用超声定位经皮肾镜取石术(PCNL)治疗伴脊柱畸形上尿路结石的可行性及安全性.方法 伴脊柱畸形的上尿路结石患者35例.男19例,女16例.平均年龄32(22～64)岁.患者均经B超、KUB、CT检查确诊.左侧21例、右侧12例、双侧2例,共37侧.鹿角状结石7侧,多发结石21侧,单发结石9侧.结石长径平均26(12～45)mm.伴发脊柱畸形单纯侧凸3例,侧凸合并前、后凸32例.凸向患肾20侧,凸向健肾17侧.脊柱弯曲角度Cobb角>45°16例,<45°19例.脊柱畸形引发患肾形态改变13侧(35.1%),位置明显移位26侧(70.3%).引发胸廓畸形31例(88.6%).肺功能检查13例,通气和贮备功能下降11例.35例患者37侧肾脏手术,2例双侧结石间隔1周分2次完成手术.全身麻醉,手术取俯卧位9侧,侧卧位14侧,其他非常规体位14侧.应用实时彩色多普勒超声定位,一期成功建立24 F标准皮肾通道并应用气压弹道联合超声碎石清石系统去除结石. 结果 一期单通道手术34侧(91.9%),一期双通道手术3侧(8.1%).通道建立时间(8.55±1.7)min,平均结石处理时间(39.3±14.6)min.一期结石清除32侧(86.5%),多期结石清除2侧,总净石率91.9%(34/37).3例有残石患者保守观察.输血2例.未发生脏器损伤和尿源性败血症. 结论 脊柱畸形可导致泌尿系统及胸廓的解剖异常,常规体位及定位穿刺与通道建立困难.设计合理的手术体位,彩色多普勒超声定位,伴脊柱畸形的上尿路结石PCNL治疗安全、有效.     

Current practice patterns in the management of upper urinary tract calculi in the north central United States

PURPOSE: To determine the current practice patterns in the management of upper urinary tract calculi in a large group of urologists in the north central United States. MATERIALS AND METHODS: An email survey was sent to 790 practicing members of the North Central Section of the American Urological Association. The survey consisted of questions pertaining to practice and training background, and case scenarios with treatment options for upper urinary tract calculi of different sizes at various locations. The responses were then statistically analyzed to determine practice trends. RESULTS: Seven urologists did not fill out the survey, as they did not manage patients with stone disease. The overall response rate was 23% (167/783). Although more than 75% of urologists were trained to perform extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy (SWL), ureteroscopy (URS), and percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) during their residency, only 61% and 17% were trained to perform open stone surgery (OSS) and medical expulsive therapy (MET), respectively. Twelve percent of respondents were fellowship trained in endourology. Observation was most commonly recommended for asymptomatic renal calculi <5 mm in size (92%). Although SWL continues to be the most commonly utilized therapy for renal (43%-92%) and proximal ureteral calculi <20 mm in size (29%-51%), and PCNL for renal calculi >20 mm in size (72%-92%), many urologists (48%) favored PCNL for lower pole calculi 10 to 20 mm in size. Use of URS was mostly favored for distal (44%-90%) and proximal ureteral calculi (23%-46%), while MET was recommended for small ureteral calculi <5 mm in size (25%-32%). Fellowship-trained endourologists, academic urologists, and urologists in practice for less than 5 years were more likely to utilize URS, PCNL, and MET, and less likely to utilize SWL for urinary calculi. CONCLUSION: The results of this survey suggest that practice patterns for treatment of stone disease match the treatment approach recommended in the published literature. This information can be further utilized for assessment of guidelines for the treatment of stone disease.     

经皮肾镜在肝硬化高出血风险上尿路结石患者中的应用

目的探讨肝硬化上尿路结石患者行经皮肾镜碎石取石术（PCNL）的安全性及疗效。 方法回顾性分析重庆北大阳光医院泌尿外科2015年5月～2017年11月行PCNL的13例肝硬化患者临床资料,分析13例患者术前及术后凝血功能指标、血红蛋白、结石清除率以及术中、术后出血情况。 结果13例患者中,平均手术时间为（61±6）min。术后有1例患者结石残留,予以保守口服排石药物治疗,结石清除率为92.3%（12/13）。术后患者血红蛋白平均为（88.6±5.2）g/L,平均下降（14.6±4.8）g/L。13例患者中,无严重并发症发生。围手术期输血3例,其中因术前严重贫血予以输血纠正1例,术后输入冷沉淀补充凝血因子后纠正出血1例,术后出血行高选择性左肾动脉介入栓塞术1例。 结论PCNL在肝硬化高出血风险患者中并非是绝对手术禁忌证,术前调控好患者的凝血功能指标,术后密切监测及治疗,PCNL对肝硬化患者上尿路结石的治疗是相对安全、有效的。     

Success in treating renal calculi with single-access, single-event percutaneous nephrolithotomy: is a routine "second look" necessary?

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) is an effective procedure for the treatment of large renal calculi. An important consideration for patients undergoing PCNL is the management of any residual stone burden, which may include "second-look" nephroscopy. The utility of this practice is unproven, and we present our data on a series of patients in which second-look procedures were not performed. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed the records of 43 consecutive patients undergoing a total of 45 procedures by a single surgeon at a tertiary-care center. Patients were considered stone free if no calculi were evident by either plain film or noncontrast CT scan. Statistical analysis was used to look for correlations between radiographic stone clearance and various patient and stone characteristics. Results: Of these procedures, 15% had immediate postoperative evidence of residual fragments. At a mean follow-up of 8 months, 32.5% had residual or recurrent stone. There were statistically significant correlations between both patient age and stone size and the risk of recurrent or residual stone. CONCLUSIONS: In our study, PCNL was effective for the single-stage treatment of large renal calculi. Aggressive stone clearance obviated the need for routine second-look nephroscopy. Factors leading to an increased risk of residual or recurrent calculi included the presence of a staghorn calculus and younger patient age. The excellent stone-free rates achieved suggest that routine second-look nephroscopy may not be necessary for the majority of patients undergoing PCNL.     

超声引导下经皮肾镜碎石术治疗复杂性肾结石

目的探讨超声引导下经皮肾镜碎石术（PCNL）治疗复杂性肾结石的临床应用。方法在超声引导下对89例上尿路结石患者行经皮肾穿刺建立碎石通道,经通道于输尿管镜下行气压弹道碎石取石术。结果所有患者均穿刺成功,经单通道或双通道行Ⅰ期或Ⅱ期PCNL,结石总清除率94.19%,手术平均时间80 min,未出现严重并发症。结论超声引导下,选择合适穿刺点和穿刺路径建立经皮肾镜碎石通道,有助于提高PCNL治疗上尿路结石的手术时效,拓宽其适应证范围。     

经皮肾镜碎石术并发急性肺水肿、脓毒性休克1例报告并文献复习

经皮肾镜碎石术（PCNL）是尿石症的现代先进、微创治疗方法之一,在临床上应用广泛,但手术过程中可出现多种相关并发症。现报告1例ASAI级47岁女性患者因“双肾结石并泌尿系感染”,在腰硬联合麻醉下行左侧经皮肾镜碎石术,术中出现低氧血症急性肺水肿,继而脓毒性休克,结合文献对经皮肾镜碎石术中并发急性肺水肿、脓毒性休克的防治进行复习,术中麻醉医生要加强对生命体征的监测,及时发现、及时处理出现的并发症,主动参与到围术期医学中,在并发症的防治中发挥重要作用,对病人的预后有重要的意义。     

经皮肾镜手术并发症及防治

目的应用经皮肾镜取石术(PCNL)治疗复杂性肾结石和输尿管上段结石,并对并发症进行分析,探讨并发症的预防和处理。方法对262例患者进行PCNL,对术中和术后出现的并发症进行观察和处理,并进行回顾性分析,探讨并发症发生的原因。结果 PCNL术疗效满意,对并发症处理的结果满意。结论 PCNL术疗效肯定,是治疗复杂性肾、肾盂和输尿管上段结石的理想方法之一,但有一定的并发症。合理选择患者,充分术前准备,术中操作轻柔,术后严密观察病情变化并及时处理是PCNL成功的关键。     

术前B超标记预定位CT修正定位后术中B超定位在PCNL术中的应用研究

目的:探讨一种更加安全、精确、有效的经皮肾镜取石术(PCNL)穿刺定位方式治疗上尿路结石的安全性和有效性.方法:回顾性分析2013年8月-2019年12月我院采用B超预定位CT标记修正定位后术中B超定位行精准PCNL治疗上尿路结石的937例患者的临床资料,其中肾结石851例,输尿管结石86例.手术均采用气管插管全身麻醉...     

经皮肾镜与输尿管软镜治疗肾盏憩室结石的比较

目的探讨经皮肾镜超声碎石取石术与输尿管软镜钬激光碎石取石术治疗肾盏憩室结石的临床疗效。 方法回顾性分析2010年6月至2017年7月,我院采用经皮肾镜治疗的20例肾盏憩室结石患者及输尿管软镜治疗的18例肾盏憩室结石患者的资料,比较两种术式在手术时间、术中出血量及术后住院时间、并发症发生率、碎石成功率及憩室改善情况等。 结果输尿管软镜手术组的手术时间、术中出血量及术后住院时间等指标明显优于经皮肾镜组（P<0.05）;而在手术并发症、碎石成功率及完全清石率方面结果差异均无统计学意义（P>0.05）。术后6个月随访发现,两组肾盏憩室融合或是明显减小者比例差异无统计学意义（P>0.05）。 结论经皮肾镜及输尿管软镜在肾盏憩室结石治疗方面均可取得满意疗效。     

微创治疗上尿路结石所致急性肾功能衰竭

目的探讨微创治疗上尿路结石所致急性肾功能衰竭的临床效果。方法2012年12月～2013年8月,对30例上尿路结石致急性梗阻性肾功能衰竭先行输尿管置管或经皮肾穿刺造瘘,根据病情行输尿管镜取石术或微通道经皮肾镜取石术。结果均成功解除尿路梗阻,输尿管镜气压弹道取石术18例,结石取净率94．4％（17／18）;微通道经皮肾镜气压弹道取石术12例,结石取净率91．7％（11／12）,无严重并发症发生。术后3～14d血cr由285～1162μmol／L降至58～343μmol／L。术后随访1～6个月,平均3个月,肾功能恢复正常25例,5例仍有氮质血症,但肾功能明显改善。结论输尿管镜取石术或微通道经皮肾镜取石术治疗上尿路结石所致急性肾功能衰竭具有微创、安全、效果好等优点。