缺血预处理对大鼠视网膜缺血再灌注损伤保护作用

目的：探讨缺血预处理是否对视网膜缺血再灌注损伤有保护作用及其机理,方法：利用前房灌注生理盐水形成高眼压的视网膜缺血再灌注损伤的动物模型,视网膜缺血时间为1h分别于缺血前30min、24h或72h对大鼠一只眼5min短暂缺血即预处理,24h或72h后行视网膜电图（ERG）、电镜、光镜、丙二醛（MDA）及热休克蛋白70（HSP70）检测,或者一侧眼行5min假处理,24h后行1h缺血,24h或72h再行上述检测,所有对侧眼不作处理作对照,结果：与假处理相相比,缺血前24、72h进行预处理后的大鼠视网膜光镜、电镜表现损害明显减轻,ERGb波明显恢复（P＜0．01）,MDA含量降低（P＜0．01）,缺血前30min预处理的视网膜表现严重的损害,ERGb波几安全消失,结论：缺血预处理对视网膜缺血再灌注损伤有保护作用,且有一定时限性。     

缺血后适应对视网膜缺血-再灌注损伤的保护作用

背景研究证明,缺血后适应（IPC）对多种组织器官的缺血缺氧损伤均有一定的抵抗作用,但其对视网膜缺血缺氧的作用仍受到关注。目的探讨IPC对大鼠视网膜缺血-再灌注损伤（RIRI）后视网膜结构和功能的保护作用。方法将36只健康雄性Wistar大鼠以随机数字表法分为正常对照组、伪手术组、缺血-再灌注组、IPC组。利用前房灌注生理盐水升高眼压至100mmHg（1mmHg=0．133kPa）维持60min的方法制备RIRI大鼠模型,实施IPC处理鼠亚分为再灌注后即刻、1min、10min组（即IPCⅠ组、IPCⅡ组、IPCⅢ组）,分别于实验后1d、7d行大鼠视网膜电图（ERG）检测,然后用过量麻醉法处死大鼠并制备视网膜切片,行苏木精-伊红染色,对各组大鼠视网膜厚度的变化和视网膜形态进行观察。采用SPSS13．0统计学软件的单因素方差分析对各组大鼠ERG各波振幅恢复率和视网膜厚度值的差异进行比较。结果实验后1d,与正常对照组大鼠比较,伪手术组大鼠视网膜结构接近正常,而缺血-再灌注组及IPCⅠ组、IPCⅡ组、IPCⅢ组大鼠视网膜均出现水肿,可见空泡变性,主要在内丛状层（IPL）及内核层（INL）。缺血-再灌注组及IPCⅠ组、IPCⅡ组、IPCⅢ组大鼠视网膜全层、INL、IPL及视网膜外层厚度值均明显高于正常对照组,差异均有统计学意义（均P〈0．05）。再灌注后7d,缺血-再灌注组大鼠视网膜全层厚度值明显低于正常对照组,差异均有统计学意义（均P〈0．05）,尤以INL、IPL显著。IPCⅠ组、IPCⅡ组、IPCⅢ组大鼠视网膜全层、INL、IPL及视网膜外层厚度值均明显高于缺血-再灌注组,差异均有统计学意义（均P〈0．05）。再灌注后7d,缺血-再灌注组、IPC各组大鼠ERG a波、b波和OPs振幅恢复率明显低于伪手术组和正常对照组大鼠,差异均有统计学意义（均P〈0．05）;而IPCⅠ组、IPCⅡ组、IPCⅢ组大鼠ERG a波、b波和OPs振幅恢复率明显高于缺血-再灌注组,差异均有统计学意义（均P〈0,05）。结论IPC对RIRI具有保护作用,在大鼠模型中,这种保护作用在再灌注后即刻至1min时最强。     

视网膜缺血--再灌注损伤的保护

视网膜缺血-再灌注损伤是目前研究较多的一个课题,其损伤机制复杂,目前通过各种实验研究探索其损伤机制以及减轻或防止缺血-再灌注损伤的药物和方法很多.现就视网膜缺血-再灌注损伤的保护机制进行总结归纳.     

葛根素对大鼠视网膜缺血再灌注损伤的保护作用

目的观察葛根素(puerarin)对大鼠视网膜缺血再灌注的保护作用及机制。方法成年Wistar大鼠随机分成对照组、缺血再灌注未治疗组、缺血再灌注葛根素治疗组。采用前房灌注液体形成高眼压而建立RIR模型。治疗组在缺血前30min给予大鼠腹腔内注射葛根素。缺血60min后恢复血流。光镜观察各组视网膜内层厚度以及浸润入视网膜的中性粒细胞数目、神经节细胞数变化;免疫组化法检测Caspase-3蛋白在各组视网膜中的表达。结果葛根素治疗组再灌注6h以后各时间段视网膜内层厚度均较未治疗组视网膜缺血再灌注厚,早期视网膜内层水肿增厚,晚期视网膜神经节细胞数目减少及视神经纤维层萎缩变薄,神经节细胞数目多于未治疗组,而视网膜中的中性粒细胞数目少于未治疗组;Caspase-3蛋白于再灌注后24h达到高峰,但各时间段治疗组表达强度均较未治疗组明显减弱。结论葛根素对视网膜缺血再灌注损伤有治疗作用,抑制缺血再灌注损伤后的炎症反应和Caspase-3蛋白的表达是其可能的保护机制。     

阿魏酸钠对兔实验性高眼压视网膜缺血-再灌注损伤的保护作用

目的 探讨阿魏酸钠(sodium ferlate,SF)对实验性高眼压视网膜缺血-再灌注(retinal ischemic reperfusion,RIR)损伤的保护作用及机制,方法采用眼内灌注法,前房灌注生理盐水建立RIR损伤模型32只新西兰大白兔随机分为SF治疗组、生理盐水对照组,每组16兔.2组于再灌注后立即按50 mg·kg-1体质量耳缘静脉推注25 g·L-1SF和生理盐水,每隔24 h推注相同量的药物和生理盐水.每组分别于推注后24 h、72 h空气栓塞法处死动物,用硫代巴比妥分光光度法(TBA)测定丙二醛(malondialdehyde,MDA)含量,黄嘌呤氧化酶法测定超氧化物歧化酶(superoxide dismutase,SOD)活性结果再灌注24 h后,对照组视网膜MDA含量为(3.434±1.003)μmol·g-1,较治疗组(1.394±0.564)μmol·g-1升高(P＜0.05),SOD含量为(70.734±1.329)U·mg-1,低于治疗组(98.892±8.979)U·mg-1(P＜0.05);再灌注72 h后,对照组视网膜MDA含量为(2.639±1.412)μmol·g-1,高于治疗组(1.459±1.552)μmol·g-1(P＜0.05),SOD含量为(113.169±0.072)U·mg-1,低于治疗组(139.222±10.066)U·mg-1(P＜0.05)结论 SF注射液可通过降低视网膜组织MDA含量,提高SOD活性,对新西兰大白兔实验性高眼压RIR损伤起一定的保护作用.     

藏红花素对大鼠视网膜缺血-再灌注损伤的保护作用

目的　观察大鼠视网膜缺血-再灌注损伤（retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury，RIRI）时藏红花素对视网膜细胞凋亡数目、凋亡相关蛋白Caspase-3表达的影响，探讨缺血再灌注时藏红花素对视网膜的保护作用机制。方法　选取体质量200~250 g的健康雄性SD大鼠24只，随机分为4组:对照组、模型组、藏红花素低剂量组和藏红花素高剂量组，每组6只。藏红花素低剂量组、高剂量组分别于造模前3 d、30 min定时腹腔注射5 g·L^-1藏红花素5 mg·kg^-1、50 mg·kg^-1。造模成功后24 h处死大鼠并摘取眼球。使用电镜观察各组大鼠视网膜细胞结构，TUNEL染色检测视网膜凋亡细胞数量，免疫组织化学染色法观察凋亡相关蛋白Caspase-3在视网膜中的表达。结果　视网膜TUNEL染色发现，对照组视网膜组织中几乎未发现凋亡细胞的阳性表达，模型组视网膜神经节细胞层和内核层中发现大量棕黄色着色的细胞，其凋亡细胞数为（27.40±0.96）个，藏红花素低剂量组可见神经节细胞层、内核层凋亡细胞数较模型组减少，凋亡细胞数为（8.40±0.41）个，与模型组相比差异有统计学意义（P<0.01）；藏红花素高剂量组凋亡细胞数较模型组和低剂量组明显减少，凋亡细胞数为（4.30±0.47）个，和藏红花素低剂量组相比差异有统计学意义（P<0.01）。对照组大鼠视网膜组织Caspase-3染色阴性，模型组视网膜神经节细胞层可见棕黄色颗粒位于细胞浆内，藏红花素低剂量组Caspase-3蛋白表达量与模型组类似，藏红花素高剂量组Caspase-3蛋白表达量与对照组类似。结论　藏红花素能通过降低Caspase-3蛋白含量及凋亡细胞数，从而有效保护视网膜免受RIRI。     

重组人促红细胞生成素对大鼠视网膜缺血-再灌注损伤的保护作用

目的 制作Sprague-Dawley (SD)大鼠视网膜缺血-再灌注(RIR)损伤模型,探讨腹腔内注射重组人促红细胞生成素(rHuEPO)对急性RIR损伤所致的大鼠视网膜神经元损伤的保护作用及其对热休克蛋白72(HSP72)表达的影响.方法 采用前房灌注的方式建立RIR损伤模型,灌注压110 mm Hg(1 mm Hg=0.133kPa),缺血时间1h;腹腔注射rHuEPO.78只SD大鼠随机分组:正常组6只,EPO组、EPO+槲皮黄酮组、RIR组各24只,均以右眼为实验眼.采用免疫组织化学法和末端脱氧核苷酸转移酶介导的dUTP缺口末端标记法(TUNEL)分别测定正常对照组和各实验组大鼠再灌注24h、48 h、72 h和1周视网膜中HSP72及凋亡细胞的表达,观察各组大鼠视网膜病理学改变.结果 ①正常组大鼠视网膜中HSP72表达微弱,各实验组大鼠视网膜中HSP72表达自再灌注12 h开始增强,24h达到高峰,随后逐渐减弱,72 h时表达稍高于正常.再灌注后各时间段,EPO组大鼠视网膜中HSP72表达均高于RIR组、EPO+槲皮黄酮组(P＜0.05).②正常大鼠视网膜中几乎没有凋亡细胞.再灌注后12 h,各实验组大鼠视网膜中可见凋亡细胞,24 h达高峰,48 h后凋亡细胞数逐渐减少;再灌注后各组大鼠视网膜中凋亡细胞数比正常组多(P＜0.05).③再灌注后,RIR组,EPO+槲皮黄酮组大鼠内层视网膜明显水肿,炎性细胞侵入,膜结构逐渐破坏;EPO组大鼠视网膜结构保持相对完整,炎性细胞相对较少.结论 ①HSP72在正常大鼠视网膜中表达微弱,RIR损伤后表达增多.腹腔注射EPO可以明显诱导大鼠视网膜中HSP72的表达增多.②EPO可以减少大鼠RIR损伤后视网膜细胞凋亡,减少视网膜内炎性细胞的浸润,保护视网膜结构,对视网膜具有明显的保护作用.其机制可能与使HSP72表达上调有关.(中国眼耳鼻喉科杂志,2012,12:30-35)     

果糖二磷酸镁对大鼠视网膜缺血再灌注损伤的保护作用

目的 探讨果糖二磷酸镁(magnesium fructose diphosphata,FDPMg)时实验性大鼠视网膜缺血再灌注损伤的影响及其作用机制.方法 通过升高眼压的方法,制作大鼠实验性视网膜缺血再灌注损伤的模型.将66只SD大鼠随机分为正常组、缺血再灌注模型组、FDPMg干预组.后两组各分为6 h、12 h、24 h、48 h、72 h 5个时间段.采用DNA原位末端标记法检测凋亡的视网膜细胞;免疫组织化学法检测视网膜组织中Fas/FasL蛋白的表达变化.结果 正常组大鼠视网膜未见凋亡细胞.缺血再灌注模型组再灌注6 h可观察到凋亡细胞;12 h凋亡细胞逐渐增加;24 h细胞凋亡达高峰;48 h凋亡细胞减少;72 h视网膜仍可见凋亡细胞.各组Fas/FasL表达情况与视网膜细胞凋亡情况基本一致.FDPMg干预组各时段各观察指标表达均较缺血再灌注模型组明显下降,两组间比较差异均有显著统计学意义(均为P＜0.01).结论 FDPMg明显抑制Fas/FasL蛋白在视网膜缺血再灌注损伤中的表达,进而抑制细胞凋亡来实现其对视网膜缺血再灌注损伤的保护作用.     

一氧化氮与视网膜缺血-再灌注损伤

一氧化氮（NO）在视网膜缺血-再灌注损伤中占重要地位。视网膜缺血-再灌注时,一氧化氮合成酶（NOS）被多种炎性介质和细胞因子激活,使NO大量生成。NO是一种活性很强的自由基,具有广泛的生物学活性。在缺血-再灌注早期,少量NO可降低缺血缺氧对视网膜的损伤程度;晚期过多的NO可通过多种途径对视网膜造成损害。就目前有关NO在视网膜缺血-再灌注损伤中的研究进展进行综述。     

大鼠视网膜缺血再灌注后细胞间粘附分子-1的表达

目的　探讨大鼠视网膜缺血再灌注后不同时间视网膜细胞间粘附分子 1(inter cellularadhesionmolecule 1,ICAM 1)表达和白细胞浸润的变化。方法　选择健康成年Wistar大鼠 70只 ,随机分成 7组 :正常组和再灌注 0、2、6、12、2 4、4 8h组 ,每组 10只。用眼内灌注法建立视网膜缺血再灌注动物模型。制作大鼠视网膜冰冻及石蜡切片 ,分别作免疫组化SP染色和常规HE染色 ,并对SP染色结果作计算机图像分析。结果　ICAM 1在正常视网膜血管内皮细胞胞膜微量表达 ,缺血 6 0min后 ,ICAM 1表达上调 ,至再灌注2 4h达高峰 ,在再灌注 4 8h仍维持较高水平。再灌注 6h ,视网膜开始有白细胞浸润 ,随再灌注时间延长而增多 ,再灌注 2 4、4 8h组 ,视网膜中发现较多浸润的白细胞。结论　视网膜缺血再灌注早期 ,视网膜血管内皮细胞ICAM 1表达上调 ,继而 ,视网膜中白细胞浸润增多 ,这一过程是视网膜缺血再灌注损伤的重要机制之一。     

Expression of matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors in experimental retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are endopeptidases that degrade the extracellular matrix (ECM) and are involved in the pathogenesis of retinal degeneration along with tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). The present study examined the expression and activation of two specific members of MMPs (MMP-2 and MMP-9) and their related inhibitors (TIMP-1 and TIMP-2) in an experimental retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury. Retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury (RIRI) was induced in adult rats with a ligation method. After one hour of ischemia and a varied reperfusion time (0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48 and 76 hr), the rat eyes were enucleated. Retinal extracts underwent zymographic analysis to measure the activity of MMP-2/9. The activity of TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 was measured by reverse zymography. The protein level was examined by Western blot. Immunohistochemistry analysis was undertaken to assess the anatomical distribution of MMP-9 in the retina after RIRI. The gelatinolytic activity of ProMMP-2 (72 kDa) was increased markedly at 6 hr after RIRI. ProMMP-9 (92 kDa) was not detected in the control specimens, while it appeared at 3 hr, increased markedly at 6 hr, and reached maximal levels at 24 hr after RIRI. The gelatinolytic activity found ian retinal extracts was shown to be inhibited by 10 m M EDTA and activated in vitro by a known metalloproteinase activator (4-aminophenylmercuric acetate (APMA)), indicating that these enzymes were of the metalloproteinase class. By western blot, MMP-2/9 levels increased parallel to protein activity level in zymography. No corresponding increase in TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 protein activity and protein level was detected by reverse zymography and western blot. Elevated levels of MMP-9 and its distribution in retina were confirmed by immunohistochemistry. Expression of MMP-9 was detected in the inner and outer segments of rat retina, and the level becomes stronger at 24 hr after RIRI. In this study, ProMMP-2 and ProMMP-9 were expressed and increased significantly, but their inhibitors (TIMP-1 and TIMP-2) remained relatively unaltered in ischemic retina after RIRI in rats. These results suggest that MMP-2 and MMP-9 may play an important role in the pathomechanism of retinal ischemic injury.     

Protection of retinal ganglion cells against optic nerve injury by induction of ischemic preconditioning

AIM: To explore if ischemic preconditioning (IPC) can enhance the survival of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) after optic nerve axotomy. METHODS: Twenty-four hours prior to retinal ischemia 60min or axotomy, IPC was applied for ten minutes in groups of (n=72) animals. The survival of RGCs, the cellular expression of heat shock protein 27 (HSP27) and heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) and the numbers of retinal microglia in the different groups were quantified at 7 and 14d post-injury. The cellular expression of HSP27 and HSP70 and changes in the numbers of retinal microglia were quantified to detect the possible mechanism of the protection of the IPC. RESULTS: Ten minutes of IPC promoted RGC survival in both the optic nerve injury (IPC-ONT) and the retinal ischemia 60min (IPC-IR60) groups, examined at 7d and 14d post-injury. Microglial proliferation showed little correlation with the extent of benefit effects of IPC on the rescue of RGCs. The number of HSP27-positive RGCs was significantly higher in the IPC-ONT group than in the sham IPC-ONT group, although the percentage of HSP27-positive RGCs did not significantly differ between groups. For the IPC-IR60 group, neither the number nor the percentage of the HSP27-positive RGCs differed significantly between the IPC and the sham-operated groups. The number of HSP70-positive RGCs was significantly higher for both the IPC-ONT and the IPC-IR60 experimental groups, but the percentages did not differ. CONCLUSION: The induction of IPC enhances the survival of RGCs against both axotomy and retinal ischemia.     

Protective effects of catalase on retinal ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats

Retinal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury causes profound tissue damage, especially retinal ganglion cell (RGC) death. The aims of the study were to investigate whether catalase (CAT) has a neuroprotective effect on RGC after I/R injury in rats, and to determine the possible antioxidant mechanism. Wistar female rats were randonmized into four groups: normal control group (Control group), retinal I/R with vehicle group (I/R with vehicle group), retinal I/R with AAV-CAT group (I/R with AAV-CAT group), and normal retina with AAV-CAT group (normal with AAV-CAT group). One eye of each rat was pretreated with recombinant adeno-associated virus containing catalase gene (I/R with AAV-CAT group or normal with AAV-CAT group) and recombinant adeno-associated virus containing GFP gene (I/R with vehicle group) by intravitreal injection 21 days before initiation of I/R injury. Retinal I/R injury was induced by elevating intraocular pressure to 100 mmHg for 1 h. The number of RGC and inner plexiform layer (IPL) thickness were measured by fluorogold retrograde labeling and hematoxylin and eosin staining at 6 h, 24 h, 72 h and 5d after injury. Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), the number of RGC, IPL thickness, malondialdehyde(MDA), 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), CAT activity and nitrotyrosine were measured by fluorescence staining, immunohistochemistry and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay analysis at 5 days after injury. Electroretinographic (ERG) evaluation was also used. Pretreatment of AAV-CAT significantly decreased the levels of H₂O₂, MDA, 8-OHdG and nitrotyrosine, increased the catalase activity, and prevented the reduction of a- and b- waves in the I/R with AAV-CAT group compare with the I/R with vehicle group (p < 0.01). Catalase attenuated the I/R-induced damage of RGC and IPL and retinal function. Therefore, catalase can protect the rat retina from I/R-induced injury by enhancing the antioxidative ability and reducing oxidative stress, which suggests that catalase may be relevant for the neuroprotection of inner retina from I/R-related diseases.     

藏红花素对视网膜缺血再灌注损伤小鼠视网膜神经节细胞的保护作用及其机制研究

目的　研究藏红花素对视网膜缺血再灌注损伤（RIRI）小鼠视网膜神经节细胞（RGC）的保护作用及其机制。方法　将144只C57BL/6小鼠随机分为3组:假手术组、模型组、藏红花素治疗组。模型组和藏红花素治疗组小鼠建立RIRI模型,藏红花素治疗组小鼠造模前30 min腹腔注射50 mg·kg^-1藏红花素。RIRI后14 d,视网膜铺片染色比较各组小鼠RGC密度差异。RIRI后24 h,HE染色比较各组小鼠视网膜内层厚度差异。于RIRI后不同时间点（0 h、3 h、6 h、9 h、12 h、15 h）取各组小鼠视网膜组织,通过多重基因定量分析系统检测NLRP3、ASC、Caspase-1、白细胞介素-1β（IL-1β） mRNA的表达变化。RIRI后6 h和12 h取各组小鼠视网膜组织,Western blot检测NLRP3、ASC、Caspase-1、IL-1β蛋白的表达,ELISA检测IL-1β蛋白的含量,并对比分析。结果　小鼠RIRI后14 d,视网膜铺片染色结果显示,藏红花素治疗组较模型组小鼠RGC密度增加约18.5%（P<0.05）。RIRI后24 h,HE染色结果显示,藏红花素治疗组小鼠视网膜内层厚度较模型组显著降低（P<0.01）。多重定量分析系统检测结果显示,RIRI后6 h、9 h及12 h,藏红花素治疗组小鼠视网膜组织中Caspase-1以及IL-1β mRNA表达较模型组均显著降低（均为P<0.05)。Western blot检测结果显示,藏红花素治疗组小鼠视网膜组织中Caspase-1以及IL-1β蛋白表达较模型组均显著降低（均为P<0.05)。RIRI后6 h、12 h,模型组小鼠视网膜组织中NLRP3、ASC mRNA和蛋白表达与假手术组相比无显著变化（均为P>0.05)。ELISA检测结果进一步证实,RIRI后6 h和12 h,藏红花素治疗组小鼠视网膜组织中IL-1β蛋白含量较模型组均显著降低（均为P<0.05)。结论　藏红花素通过抑制Caspase-1和IL-1β表达保护RIRI小鼠RGC。     

促红细胞生成素对大鼠急性缺血视网膜节细胞的保护作用

目的:探讨重组人促红细胞生成素(recombinant human erythropoietin,rhEPO)对大鼠视网膜缺血再灌注损伤(retina ischemia reperfusion injury,RIR)中视网膜神经节细胞(retinal ganglion cell,RGC)的保护作用。方法:成年雌性SD大鼠20只,采用夹闭视网膜动脉30min造成大鼠双眼缺血再灌注模型。所有大鼠均于建模前1h给予左眼rhEPO10U(6μL),右眼给予同等剂量眼用平衡盐液。按照建模后眼球取材时间不同(1,4,7,14d)分为4组,每组5只,均于取材前4d利用荧光金(fluorogold,FG)逆行标记大鼠RGC,视网膜铺片RGC计数,比较双眼存活RGC数量。结果:rhEPO治疗眼RGC存活数多于平衡盐液对照眼。结论:rhEPO对大鼠视网膜急性缺血后RGC具有保护作用。     

The role of Akt/protein kinase B subtypes in retinal ischemic preconditioning

Potent endogenous protection from ischemia can be induced in the retina by ischemic preconditioning (IPC). Protein kinase B/Akt is a cellular survival factor. We hypothesized that Akt was integral to IPC based upon differential effects of Akt subtypes. Rats were subjected to retinal ischemia after IPC or IPC-mimicking by the opening of mitochondrial KATP (mKATP) channels. The effects of blocking Akt using wortmannin, API-2, or small interfering RNA (siRNA) were examined. Electroretinography assessed functional recovery after ischemia, and TUNEL examined retinal ganglion cell apoptosis. We studied the relationship between Akt activation and known initiators of IPC, including adenosine receptor stimulation and the opening of mKATP channels. The PI-3 kinase inhibitor wortmannin 1 or 4 mg/kg (i.p.), the specific Akt inhibitor API-2, 5-500 μM in the vitreous, or intravitreal siRNA directed against Akt2 or -3, but not Akt1, significantly attenuated the neuroprotective effect of IPC. Interfering RNA against any of the three Akt subtypes significantly but time-dependently attenuated mKATP channel opening to mimic IPC. Adenosine A1 receptor blockade (DPCPX), A2a blockade (CSC), or the mKATP channel blocker 5-hydroxydecanoic acid significantly attenuated Akt activation after IPC. Interfering RNA directed against Akt subtypes prevented the ameliorative effect of IPC on post-ischemic apoptosis. All three Akt subtypes are involved in functional retinal neuroprotection by IPC or IPC-mimicking. Akt is downstream of adenosine A1 and A2a receptors and mKATP channel opening. The results indicate the presence in the retina of robust and redundant endogenous neuroprotection based upon subtypes of Akt.     

Protein kinase C subtypes and retinal ischemic preconditioning

The purpose of our study was to determine the specific subtypes of protein kinase C involved in the neuroprotection afforded by retinal ischemic preconditioning (IPC), their relationship to the opening of mitochondrial KATP (mKATP) channels, and their role in apoptosis after preconditioning and ischemia. Rats were subjected to retinal ischemia after IPC, or retinas were rendered ischemic after pharmacological opening of mKATP channels. Using immunohistochemistry and image analysis, we determined cellular localization of PKC subtypes. We blocked PKC-delta and -epsilon to study the effect on protection with IPC or with IPC-mimicking by the opening of mKATP channels. PKC subtypes were inhibited pharmacologically or with interfering RNA. Electroretinography assessed functional recovery after ischemia. IPC was effectively mimicked by injection of diazoxide to open the mKATP channel. IPC and/or its mimicking were attenuated by the PKC-delta inhibitor rottlerin and by interfering RNA targeting PKC-delta or -epsilon. Using TUNEL staining and Western blotting for caspase-3 and fodrin breakdown we assessed apoptosis. The injection of interfering RNA to PKC-delta and -epsilon before preconditioning significantly enhanced TUNEL staining as well as the cleavage of caspase-3 and fodrin after ischemia. In summary, our experiments have shown that both PKC-delta and -epsilon subtypes are involved in the cellular signaling that results in neuroprotection from IPC and that both are downstream of the opening of mKATP channels.