Breastfeeding Promotion for Management of Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome

ObjectiveTo review the literature about the association between breastfeeding and neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) severity, need for pharmacologic treatment for NAS, and length of hospital stays in neonates with in‐utero exposure to methadone or buprenorphine opioid replacement therapy.Data SourcesPubMed, CINAHL, and Medline were searched for articles published between January 1990 and April 2013 using the terms opioid dependency in pregnancy, neonatal abstinence syndrome, methadone, buprenorphine, neonatal length of stay, breastfeeding, methadone in breast milk, buprenorphine in breast milk, swaddling, and rooming‐in.Study SelectionInclusion criteria included studies written in English on the topic of breastfeeding for management of NAS.Data ExtractionThe author independently reviewed each article.Data SynthesisBreastfeeding can effectively decrease NAS symptoms because methadone and buprenorphine are transferred to the breast milk. Maternal contact while breastfeeding also plays a role in ameliorating the NAS symptoms. Interventions that also support breastfeeding in the treatment of NAS include skin‐to‐skin contact, swaddling, and rooming‐in.ConclusionsUnderstanding the benefits of breastfeeding for opioid‐dependent pregnant women and their neonates will enable clinicians to safely recommend breastfeeding for long‐term health of these high‐risk women and their infants. This review of the effects of in‐utero exposure to opioids on infant development can assist clinicians to more effectively support opioid‐dependent women to breastfeed their infants.     

Do Maternal Pharmacogenetics Impact the Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome Following In Utero Exposure to Antidepressant Medications?

ObjectiveSelective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are the most commonly used medications for mood and anxiety disorders in women. Many women need to continue or initiate these medications during pregnancy, but there is concern about potential withdrawal effects in the newborn, referred to as neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS). The reason why some infants remain asymptomatic while others are affected has not been elucidated. The objective of this study was to examine whether genetic differences in maternal drug metabolism influence the incidence of NAS.MethodsWomen who took Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors s/SNRIs during pregnancy were recruited from obstetrical clinics. DNA was extracted from saliva samples for genetic analyses of cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme polymorphisms. Delivery and NAS data were collected from electronic medical records.ResultsNinety-five women participated. The overall NAS rate was 16.2%. Mild NAS was seen in 13.8% of neonates and severe NAS, in 2%. One-quarter (25%) of the neonates with mild withdrawal symptoms were born to mothers with polymorphisms associated with slower metabolism of their particular antidepressant, but this association was not statistically significant.ConclusionImportantly, the overall rate of NAS in our study was lower than previously reported. Maternal CYP polymorphisms did not affect the rate of NAS in neonates exposed to SSRIs/SNRIs in utero. This study lends added assurance to patients requiring SSRIs or SNRIs during pregnancy.     

Maternal Satisfaction with Administering Infant Interventions in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit

ObjectiveTo examine mothers’ satisfaction with administering interventions for their preterm infants and with the helpfulness of the study nurse by comparing massage with auditory, tactile, visual, and vestibular stimulation (ATVV intervention), kangaroo care, and education about equipment needed at home and to explore whether mother and infant characteristics affected maternal satisfaction ratings.DesignThree‐group experimental design.SettingFour neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) (two in North Carolina, two in Illinois).ParticipantsTwo hundred and eight (208) preterm infants and their mothers.MethodsWhen the infant was no longer critically ill, mother/infant dyads were randomly assigned to ATVV, kangaroo care, or the education group all taught by study nurses. At discharge and 2 months corrected age, mothers completed questionnaires.ResultsAll groups were satisfied with the intervention and with nurse helpfulness, and the degree of satisfaction did not differ among them. Intervention satisfaction, but not nurse helpfulness, was related to recruitment site. Older, married, and minority mothers were less satisfied with the intervention but only at 2 months. Higher anxiety was related to lower intervention satisfaction at discharge and lower ratings of nurse helpfulness at discharge and 2 months. More depressive symptoms were related to lower nurse helpfulness ratings at 2 months.ConclusionsMothers were satisfied with interventions for their infants regardless of the intervention performed. Maternal satisfaction with the intervention was related to recruitment site, maternal demographic characteristics, and maternal psychological distress, especially at 2 months. Thus, nursing interventions that provide mothers with a role to play in the infant's care during hospitalization are particularly likely to be appreciated by mothers.     

Estimated Breastfeeding to Support Breastfeeding in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit

ObjectiveTo evaluate the effects of estimated breastfeeding on infant outcomes in comparison to test weighing and to describe staff members’ experiences of estimated breastfeeding as a method for supporting the transition from tube feeding to breastfeeding.DesignA mixed method evaluation.SettingNeonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) in Sweden.ParticipantsThe study included 365 preterm (25^th–36^th gestational weeks) infants and 45 nurses or nurse assistants.MethodsA retrospective comparative medical record study was used to assess infant outcomes during a period of test weighing (196 infants) and again after the implementation of estimated breastfeeding (169 infants). A qualitative survey was conducted to explore the staff experiences of estimated breastfeeding.ResultsNo differences were found between groups regarding duration of tube feeding, length of hospital stay, gestational age, weight at discharge, and rate of any breastfeeding. Infants in the estimated breastfeeding group had a higher risk of not being exclusively breast milk fed than infants in the test‐weighing group (OR = 2.76, CI [1.5, 5.1]). Staff perceived estimated breastfeeding as a more facilitative and less stressful method for mothers than test weighing. Some staff had difficulty following guidelines while simultaneously providing person‐centered care.ConclusionsEstimated breastfeeding is a nonintrusive and feasible method for assessing and supporting the transition from tube feeding to breastfeeding among preterm infants in a NICU. However, the increased risk for not being exclusively breastfed is of concern. Additional research is needed to assess whether this method is appropriate and feasible in varying contexts and cultures.     

Experiences of Parents Whose Newborns Undergo Hypothermia Treatment Following Perinatal Asphyxia

ObjectiveTo describe and interpret experiences of parents whose newborns are treated with induced hypothermia following perinatal asphyxia.DesignA qualitative exploratory study.SettingData collection in parental home environments (n = 8) and in a study room in a university library (n = 2).ParticipantsA total of 10 parents, seven mothers and three fathers, participated in the study. Their newborns were treated with induced hypothermia 4 to 12 months prior to the interviews.MethodsRecorded open‐ended interviews with the participants lasted from 60 to 90 minutes. Field notes were made after each interview. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and inductive content analysis was used in the analyzing process.ResultsFour main themes emerged from the data: emotional landscapes, adaptation to a new situation (with subthemes creating control, external and internal support in a difficult situation, normalizing the abnormal and reconciling oneself to uncertainty), moments of rebirth, and change in attitude toward life and existence.ConclusionTerm newborns are treated with induced hypothermia treatment due to perinatal asphyxia. During the hospitalization of newborns in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs), parents experience high levels of stress. Parents use several strategies for adapting to this situation, and nurses play a pivotal role in providing individual support and acting as advocates for parents in the NICU. After the infants are rewarmed, parents experience a moment of rebirth that might help them attach to their infants. Further research is warranted in this area to provide holistic care and support to families whose neonates undergo this treatment.     

Systematic Review of Newborn Feeding Method and Outcomes Related to Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome

ObjectiveTo critically appraise and synthesize existing studies on the relationship between newborn feeding method and neonatal outcomes related to neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS).Data SourcesA systematic search of the literature on newborn feeding method in newborns with NAS was conducted with the use of the electronic databases PubMed, CINAHL, Nursing and Allied Health, PyschINFO, Evidence Based Medicine, Web of Science, and MEDLINE (Embase).Study SelectionStudies were eligible for inclusion if the following criteria were met: the authors reported original data on outcomes related to newborn feeding and NAS, the research followed any type of quantitative design that included comparison of breastfed and formula-fed newborns with NAS, and the articles were published in English in peer-reviewed journals from 1990 to February 2018.Data ExtractionTwo authors independently extracted the data from the full-text articles and entered them into a data extraction template developed for the systematic review. The data were synthesized narratively because of the diversity in assessment of newborn feeding methods and outcome measures.Data SynthesisWe identified eight studies in which newborn feeding method and outcomes related to NAS were evaluated in newborns exposed to opioids. The synthesis indicated that for newborns exposed to methadone, breastfeeding was associated with decreased incidence and duration of pharmacologic treatment, shorter hospital length of stay, and decreased severity of NAS. The association between newborn feeding method and NAS among newborns exposed to buprenorphine was unclear.ConclusionBreastfeeding may be effective to mitigate negative outcomes related to NAS among newborns exposed to methadone in utero. Women who are stable on opioid substitution treatment should be provided with appropriate education and support to breastfeed. However, to effectively promote breastfeeding among these mothers, evidence-based strategies are required, and barriers to breastfeeding need to be addressed.     

Integrative Review of Parents’ Perspectives of the Nursing Role in Neonatal Family-Centered Care

ObjectivesTo identify the perceptions of mothers and fathers of newborns admitted to NICUs regarding the role of neonatal nurses in the provision of family-centered care and how neonatal nurses were able to interpret and meet parents’ needs.Data SourcesWe conducted literature searches in the CINAHL, MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, Dissertations and Theses Global, and Maternity and Infant Care databases.Study SelectionArticles on qualitative and quantitative studies were selected if they were published in English from 2009 to 2018; they were set in countries with similar health care resources in Australasia, Canada, Europe, Scandinavia, the United Kingdom, and the United States; and the data were collected from parents. We identified 31 studies for analysis.Data ExtractionWe used the thematic analysis method of Braun and Clarke to extract data elements that were grouped and coded into themes and subthemes.Data SynthesisThrough ongoing iterative analysis, we generated six themes from the 18 subthemes that in combination presented the experiences of parents in the context of family-centered care provided by neonatal nurses: Process of Becoming a Parent, Neonatal Nurses Supporting Parents, Infant Safety, Communication, Barriers to Parenting, and Parenting Inhibited by Neonatal Nurses.ConclusionThe six themes reflected the contribution made by neonatal nurses to family-centered care in the NICU. The parents’ perspectives of nurses were mostly positive, but some negative aspects attributed to nurses identified in earlier studies persisted.     

An Integrative Review of Factors that Influence Breastfeeding Duration for Premature Infants after NICU Hospitalization

ObjectiveTo determine what factors affect breastfeeding duration after discharge home from the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) for high‐risk mothers and their premature infants.Data SourcesThe electronic databases of CINAHL and PubMed were used to identify studies published in English. Date of publication did not limit inclusion in the review.Study SelectionUsing exclusion and inclusion criteria, 292 articles were initially assessed for relevance to the research question through abstract review. Further screening resulted in full review of 52 articles. Reference list searching added an additional six articles. Finally, in‐depth review of these 58 articles resulted in 24 studies that fully met inclusion and exclusion criteria.Data ExtractionStudies were reviewed for information related to factors associated with breastfeeding duration for high‐risk mothers and preterm infants after NICU discharge home.Data SynthesisStudies were categorized into five themes, including NICU factors, feeding and soothing methods, maternal characteristics, maternal experiences, and support programs. Most significant factors affecting duration included exposure to kangaroo mother care, prenatal education, and quantity of maternal breast milk supply during the first week after discharge. Breastfeeding also was affected by maternal breastfeeding knowledge and perception of providing appropriate volumes.ConclusionsMothers face many challenges breastfeeding their premature infants after NICU discharge. Ideally, all mothers need to receive support after NICU discharge, and the transition to home can be challenging even if breastfeeding is well established. However, NICU professionals are in a perfect position to provide guidance to families so they are able to anticipate and effectively solve lactation challenges at home.     

Integrated Review of the Assessment of Newborns With Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome

ObjectiveTo critically review and summarize current knowledge regarding the assessment of newborns with neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS).Data SourcesWe searched the following databases for articles on the assessment of newborns with NAS that were published in English between January 2014 and June 2020: PubMed, CINAHL, and PsycINFO. Keywords and Medical Subject Heading terms used to identify relevant research articles included neonatal abstinence syndrome; Finnegan Scale; eat, sleep, console; epigenetics; genetics; pharmacokinetics; and measurement. We independently reviewed articles for inclusion.Study SelectionWe retrieved 435 articles through database searches and 17 through manual reference searches; 31 articles are included in the final review. Excluded articles were duplicates, not relevant to NAS, qualitative studies, and/or of low quality.Data ExtractionWe used the methodology of Whittemore and Knafl to guide this integrative review. We extracted and organized data under the following headings: author, year and country, purpose, study design, participants, measurement, biomarker (if applicable), results, limitations, recommendations, and intervention.Data SynthesisThe Finnegan Neonatal Abstinence Scale is the most widely used instrument to measure symptoms of NAS in newborns, although it is very subjective. Recently, there has been a transition from the Finnegan Neonatal Abstinence Scale to the eat, sleep, console method, which consists of structured assessment and intervention and has been shown to decrease length of hospital stay and total opioid treatment dose. Researchers examined biomarkers of NAS, including genetic markers and autonomic nervous system responses, on the variation in incidence and differential severity of NAS. In the included articles, women with opioid use disorder who were treated with naltrexone during pregnancy gave birth to newborns without NAS diagnoses. However, most women who were treated with buprenorphine gave birth to newborns with NAS diagnoses.ConclusionNAS negatively affects newborns in a multitude of ways, and the objective assessment and measurement of the newborn’s response to withdrawal remains understudied and needs further investigation.