强直性脊柱炎非骨水泥型全髋关节置换术后中期随访

目的观察强直性脊柱炎非骨水泥型全髋关节置换术后中期的随访结果.方法对37例(52髋)强直性脊柱炎非骨水泥型全髋关节置换术后患者进行了24～172个月,平均69个月的随访.临床随访根据Harris的评分方法进行评分,X线随访根据Gruen等和 DeLee and Charnley分区法分别进行股骨柄和臼杯X线分析,根据Brooker等0～4级分级法进行异位骨化分级.结果患者髋关节屈伸、收展、内外旋总活动度由术前的平均27°提高到术后平均152°.术后无脱位、感染等并发症发生.Harris评分术前平均为32(8～64)分,术后平均为82(64～96)分,其中优38髋,良8髋,可6髋,优良率88.5%.X线片分析未见假体松动, 11髋(21.2%)发生异位骨化. 结论人工全髋关节置换术治疗强直性脊柱炎髋关节病变,中期可取得满意的临床效果.     

强直性脊柱炎非骨水泥型全髋关节置换术后中期随访

目的:观察强直性脊柱炎非骨水泥型全髋关节置换术后中期的随访结果。方法:对37例(52髋)强直性脊柱炎非骨水泥型全髋关节置换术后患者进行了24～172个月,平均69个月的随访。临床随访根据Harris的评分方法进行评分,X线随访根据Gruen等和DeLee and Charnley分区法分别进行股骨柄和臼杯X线分析,根据Brooker等0～4级分级法进行异位骨化分级。结果:患者髋关节屈伸、收展、内外旋总活动度由术前的平均27°提高到术后平均152°。术后无脱位、感染等并发症发生。Harris评分术前平均为32(8～64)分,术后平均为82(64～96)分,其中优38髋,良8髋,可6髋,优良率88.5％。X线片分析未见假体松动,11髋(21.2％)发生异位骨化。结论:人工全髋关节置换术治疗强直性脊柱炎髋关节病变,中期可取得满意的临床效果。     

非骨水泥型全髋关节置换术治疗强直性脊柱炎髋关节病变的疗效分析

目的探讨非骨水泥全髋关节置换术治疗强直性脊柱炎髋关节病变的手术疗效。方法对16例24个髋关节强直性脊柱炎非骨水泥型全髋关节置换术后的患者进行9个月～10年,平均54．6个月的随访。对手术前后关节疼痛、活动度、畸形矫正、关节功能改善进行对比研究,术后关节功能根据Harris评分进行评价。结果屈曲活动度由术前平均24．0°提高到术后平均81．9°,改善57．9°;术后总活动度达到188．3°,Harris评分由术前平均52．5分提高到术后平均91．4分,优良率为92％。X线分析未见松动、脱位,异位骨化1例。结论非骨水泥全髋关节置换术治疗强直性脊柱炎髋关节病变的有效方法。     

非骨水泥型全髋关节假体治疗强直性脊柱炎

目的:评价非骨水泥型全髋假体治疗强直性脊柱炎中期疗效。方法:对29例(33髋)选用非骨水泥型全髋假体行全髋置换术的强直性脊柱炎患者进行随访,年龄34～57岁,平均42.4岁,术后随访2.2～5.6年(平均为4.3年)。对手术前后关节疼痛、活动度、畸形矫正、松动及患者整体功能的改善情况进行对比研究,临床随访根据Har-ris系统进行评分比较。结果:本组失访5例,术后除6侧髋关节轻度疼痛,2侧髋关节明显疼痛外,其余关节均无疼痛。关节活动度由术前平均46.5°改善为术后75.2°。髋关节屈曲畸形由术前平均32.6°改善为7.5°。术前Harris评分18～65分,平均44分;术后68～92分,平均86分。术后所有患者生活均可自理或部分自理。术中及术后并发症包括:股骨上端微型劈裂骨折5例,坐骨神经损伤1例,术后2个月脱位1例,股骨假体下沉4例,异位骨化4例。结论:使用非骨水泥型假体行全髋置换术是治疗强直性脊柱炎的一种可靠而有效的方法。     

全髋关节置换术治疗强直性脊柱炎髋关节强直的临床研究

目的探讨全髋关节置换术治疗强直性脊柱炎髋关节强直的手术方法及术后疗效。方法 2005年5月至2008年5月,对13例(18髋)强直性脊柱炎髋关节强直患者行全髋关节置换术,患者均为男性,平均年龄35岁(22～51岁)。术后平均随访3.8年(2～5年),根据Harris评分进行评分,根据Gruen股骨分区法和DeLee-Charnley髋臼分区法对股骨假体和髋臼假体作影像学分析。结果 13例(18髋)患者Harris评分由术前平均24.3分(0～38分)提高至术后平均87.3分(54～94分),疗效优6髋,良10髋,可2髋,优良率为88.9%。髋关节总活动度由术前平均35.4°(0°～105°)提高至术后平均192.6°(78°～225°)。X线片未见假体松动、脱位或折断,异位骨化发生率11.1%(2髋)。结论全髋关节置换术是重建强直性脊柱炎髋关节强直患者髋关节功能,提高生活质量的有效方法。     

强直性脊柱炎的人工全髋关节置换术(附18例/31髋中期随访分析)

目的探讨强直性脊柱炎患者行全髋关节置换术的手术方法并分析中期疗效.方法对18例(31髋)强直性脊柱炎患者行人工全髋关节置换术,并进行了平均5.2年(2～9.2年)的随访.临床随访根据Harris评分系统进行评分,X线随访根据Gruen等和Delee and Charnley分区法分别进行股骨柄和臼杯X线片分析.结果至最近1次随访,Harris评分由术前的平均27.6分(3～52分)提高到了术后的平均83.3分(54～92分)优良率为87.1%,其中,优5髋,良22髋,可3髋,差1髋.髋关节的总活动度由术前的平均35.6°(0～115°)提高到了术后的平均185.6°(54～215°).X线片未见假体松动、脱位或折断;异位骨化发生率9.7%(3髋).结论人工全髋关节置换术是强直性脊柱炎患者重建髋关节,恢复关节功能,提高生活质量的有效方法.     

人工全髋关节置换术治疗强直性脊柱炎髋关节病变的临床疗效

目的 观察人工全髋关节置换治疗强直性脊柱炎髋关节病变的手术方法和临床效果.方法 对2001年3月至2009年6月26例(31髋)强直性脊柱炎髋关节病变患者行人工全髋关节置换并随访,置换前患者日常活动均明显受限或者严重疼痛,Harris评分平均(43.2±5.8)分,髋关节活动度平均51.8°±9.7°.记录术后末次随访的Harris评分,X线检查结果,观察假体有无松动、脱位及异位骨化. 结果 所有病例得到随访,平均随访24.9(8 ～125)个月.末次随访患者均疼痛消失,步态正常.Harris评分平均(82.4±4.7)分;髋关节活动度平均148.6°±7.4°;髋关节Harris评分及关节活动度均显著高于置换前(P＜0.05).2髋出现异位骨化,为Brooker分级Ⅰ、Ⅲ级.无脱位、骨折及假体松动下沉,无患者进行翻修. 结论 人工全髋关节置换是治疗强直性脊柱炎晚期髋关节病变的有效方法,可以恢复关节功能,缓解关节疼痛并改善患者生活质量.     

强直性脊柱炎累及髋关节的全髋人工关节置换术

目的 探讨对强直性脊柱炎累及髋关节患者实施全髋人工关节置换术的临床特点、手术技术难点及中长期疗效.方法 对1986年5月～2004年6月34例(41髋)强直性脊柱炎累及髋关节患者施行全髋人工关节置换术并进行随访,所有患者均得到完整的临床及X 线片资料,平均随访时间为7.1年(2.2～19.3 年).结果 所有患者术后的临床症状及髋关节活动度均得到明显改善, Harris评分术前平均为33.9分(13.0～59.2分),术后改善为86.2分(72～96分).髋关节术前总活动度为45°(0～150°),术后改善为130°(70°～210°).随访时3例(4髋)出现假体的松动(均为骨水泥假体),其中1例患者术后10年行股骨柄及髋臼杯假体翻修术,其余患者无假体松动和下沉.2例(2髋)术后发生髋关节脱位, 2例(3 髋)髋关节周围出现轻度异位骨化.结论 强直性脊柱炎累及髋关节患者行全髋人工关节置换术后在髋关节活动度改善方面略差.术中应注意到此类患者因骨盆旋转对安放髋臼杯假体方向所产生的影响,减少术后关节脱位等并发症的发生,中、长期疗效令人满意.     

初次全髋关节置换术后异位骨化

目的 研究初次全髋关节置换术后异位骨化的发生率和相关危险因素.方法 回顾性分析249例连续患者(292髋)的全髋关节置换术后异位骨化的情况,临床和影像的平均随访时间为36个月(12～60个月),诊断主要依据髋关节前后位X线片,按Brooker分级进行分级记录.采用改良Harris评分评价临床功能,统计分析采用单因素卡方检验和多因素logistic回归分析,对性别、年龄、原发疾病及手术情况进行统计学分析并列出高危因素.结果 共79髋发生异位骨化,发生率为27.1%,其中BrookerⅠ型57髋(19.5%),Brooker Ⅱ型15髋(5.1%),Brooker Ⅲ型7髋(2.4%),没有发现Brooker Ⅳ型者.出现异位骨化时间均在术后3个月内.平均Harris评分由术前的(45.4±8.1)分提高到术后的(93.8±6.7)分.统计学分析显示男性、骨关节炎、强直性脊柱炎以及既往患髋手术史的全髋关节置换术后异位骨化要较其他患者为多,而类风湿关节炎患者全髋关节置换术后异位骨化发生率低.Brooker Ⅲ型异位骨化对髋关节屈曲及外展度有明显影响.结论 异位骨化是全髋关节置换术后常见的并发症.男性、骨关节炎、强直性脊柱炎、既往患髋手术史是全髋关节置换术后发生异位骨化的高危因素,须对这些患者进行必要的预防.Brooker Ⅲ型异位骨化会导致髋关节活动受限.     

嵌压植骨在强直性脊柱炎全髋关节置换术治疗中的应用

[目的]探讨自体骨嵌压植骨在非骨水泥型全髋关节置换术治疗强直性脊柱炎合并髋关节病变中应用的临床效果。[方法]1996年3月-2003年3月，采用自体骨嵌压植骨非骨水泥型全髋关节置换术治疗强直性脊柱炎合并股骨侧严重骨质疏松的髋关节病变17例（24髋）。手术时平均年龄35．1岁（20．52岁）；采用Harris评分方法及X线片观察进行临床疗效评定。[结果]17例患者24髋获得了完整随访，随访时间3—10年，平均7．25年。Harris评分从术前平均34分提高到术后平均84．4分，术后优良率87．5％。X线片见股骨假体与股骨近段紧密压配；无假体感染及脱位。1髋出现5mm的假体下沉，发生于术后1年内，经过5年以上随访观察，假体未进一步下沉，并与骨质接触良好，目前无松动表现。[结论]骨质量对非骨水泥假体置换的疗效影响较大，采用自体骨嵌压植骨技术进行骨质重建，为强直性脊柱炎合并严重骨质疏松患者全髋关节置换术提供了一种很好的解决方法，临床效果满意。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.