术中内镜诊治不明原因消化道出血26例临床分析

目的研究术中内镜对于剖腹探查术诊治不明原因消化道出血的价值。方法对2003～2009年桂林市第二人民医院因小肠出血不能确诊需剖腹探查的26例患者进行了术中内镜检查,并对出血原因进行分析和评估疗效。结果本组26例患者通过术中内镜检查全部明确出血原因和部位;术后26例未见再出血。结论在诊治不明原因消化道出血而行剖腹探查术时应配合术中内镜,可提高病变检出率,定位、定性准确,安全快速。     

内镜在消化道出血探查术中的应用

目的探讨消化内镜在消化道出血探查术中作用价值。方法回顾性分析我院近6年来消化道出血16例术中用消化内镜诊断和治疗情况。结果诊断小肠溃疡出血6例,出血坏死性小肠炎3例,小肠血管畸形3例,小肠平滑肌肉瘤溃破出血2例,回肠憩室1例,小肠毛细血管扩张症1例。内镜下电凝止血3例,氩气刀喷凝止血2例,钛夹钳夹止血1例,喷洒凝血酶等止血剂止血1例。其余病例均采用手术方式治疗后成功止血。结论不明原因消化道出血探查术中使用消化内镜对于明确出血部位,确定病变性质具有重要的临床价值,既减少了手术探查中的盲目性,部分出血还可以选择内镜下治疗,是安全有效的诊断和治疗方法。     

胶囊内镜对不明原因消化道出血的诊断价值

目的 比较胶囊内镜与传统小肠俭查方法对不明原因消化道出血的诊断价值。方法 总结分析67例胃镜、肠镜检查阴性的消化道出血患者中消化道钡餐、肠系膜动脉造影、推进式小肠镜、胶囊内镜及剖腹探查包括手术中肠镜结果。结果 不明原因消化道出血上、中消化道钡餐检查检出率为17．6％，诊断率为13．8％；肠系膜动脉造影检查检出率和诊断率均为13．4％；推进式小肠镜检查检出率、诊断率为．32％；剖腹探查及术中肠镜检出率和诊断率均为83．3％；胶囊内镜检查检出率为80．6％，诊断率为67．7％结论 胶囊内镜检查对于不明原因消化道出血具有较高的检出率和诊断率．明显优于传统的检查方法。     

不明原因消化道出血的处理:进展和挑战

美国消化病学院于2015年提出将原有的"不明原因消化道出血"更新定义为"小肠出血"。小肠出血是指经上、下消化道内镜检查均未发现异常的消化道出血,目前主要通过胶囊内镜、小肠镜等内镜检查和(或)影像学检查明确病因。小肠出血的治疗可分为内镜下治疗、药物治疗和手术治疗。随着技术的进展,小肠出血的诊断和治疗取得了许多进步。本文就小肠出血诊断和治疗的进展和面临的挑战作一概述。     

不明原因消化道出血诊治推荐流程(2007年3月,南京)

不明原因消化道出血（obscure gastrointestinalbleeding，OGIB）是指常规的消化道内镜（包括检查食管至十二指肠降段的上消化道内镜与肛直肠至回盲瓣的结肠镜检查）和常规钡餐检查不能明确病因的持续或反复发作的出血^[1]。可分为不明原因的隐性出血和不明原因的显性出血。     

术中内镜检查15例

术中内镜检查１５例沈云志茹佩瑛赵建妹我院１９７９年以来开展了消化道手术中内镜检查共１５例，对术前诊断困难、术中诊断不明者，明确了诊断，指导了手术，现报告如下。一，临床资料：检查指征：（１）术中未发现病灶；（２）小肠活动性出血诊断不明；（３）不能确定术...     

国产胶囊内镜对不明原因消化道出血的诊断

不明原因消化道出血是胶囊内镜检查的最常见入选指征.本研究回顾性分析我院应用国产胶囊内镜检查的15例不明原因消化道出血患者资料,探讨胶囊内镜的诊断价值.     

胶囊内镜在不明原因消化道出血患者诊断中的应用价值

不明原因消化道出血（obscure gastrointestinal bleeding,OGIB）是指结肠镜和上消化道内镜未发现明确病因的持续或反复发作的消化道出血,在消化道出血中约占5％。由于OGIB的出血部位多位于小肠,常规内镜和传统检查方法对其诊断价值有限。而诊断率较高的双气囊小肠镜,不仅操作费时、患者耐受性差、并发症多,而且全小肠检查成功率也仅62．5％。胶囊内镜作为一种无创的小肠检查方式,患者无痛苦,亦无明显不良反应和并发症。本研究通过分析我院OGIB患者的胶囊内镜检查及随访结果,探讨其在OGIB诊断中的价值。     

胶囊内镜在不明原因消化道出血中的临床应用

目的探讨胶囊内镜在不明原因消化道出血中的诊断价值、耐受性、并发症。方法对20例不明原因消化道出血患者行OMOM胶囊内镜检查。结果15例胶囊内镜下发现异常,12例明确为出血病灶,诊断率为60%（12/20）,包括克罗恩病5例,间质瘤4例,晚期肿瘤1例,新鲜出血1例,血管瘤1例。20例受检者均耐受良好,2例出现了胶囊滞留。结论胶囊内镜对不明原因消化道出血有较高的诊断率,易耐受,胶囊滞留是其主要并发症,易发生于克罗恩病患者。     

胶囊内镜在老年人不明原因的消化道出血诊断中的应用

目的探讨M2A胶囊内镜对老年人不明原因的消化道出血的诊断作用。方法对27例不明原因消化道出血的老年患者进行M2A胶囊内镜检查，其中22例经过电子胃镜、结肠镜或小肠气钡双重造影检查，均未明确出血部位；另5例未做过任何检查。结果27例患者中，经M2A胶囊内镜检查发现出血病变20例，检出率为74．1％。检出病变主要为空肠血管发育不良6例，小肠多发息肉4例（其中1例为罕见的Cronkhite-Canada综合征），小肠占位性病变4例，小肠黏膜溃疡7例，小肠黏膜糜烂9例，小肠憩室1例，胃内小动脉出血2例，胃内黏膜糜烂、溃疡5例。有12例患者同时伴有2处或以上的病变。结论M2A胶囊内镜对不明原因的消化道出血部位有较高的检出率，是一种非侵人性的检查方法，尤其适用于老年患者。     

Total peroral intraoperative enteroscopy for obscure GI bleeding using a dedicated push enteroscope: diagnostic yield and patient outcome.

BACKGROUND: Intraoperative enteroscopy is an effective diagnostic and therapeutic method in selected patients with obscure gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding. The passage of a colonoscope orally and then rectally or the use of multiple enterotomies, has been used to completely inspect the small bowel. However, the development of dedicated enteroscopes allows complete inspection using the peroral route. AIM: The aim of the study was to assess the diagnostic yield, patient outcome, and success in reaching the terminal ileum using a video enteroscope passed orally during intraoperative enteroscopy. METHODS: The hospital charts of 12 patients who underwent intraoperative enteroscopy for GI bleeding of obscure origin and 2 patients with a known source (angioectasias) who underwent evaluation to determine extent were retrospectively analyzed. RESULTS: The terminal ileum was reached in 13 of 14 patients (jejunal stricture in 1 patient). Of the patients with bleeding of obscure origin (n = 12) a source was identified in 7 (angioectasias 4, lymphoma 1, carcinoid 1, nevuslike lesion 1). Surgical therapy was performed in these 7 patients and resulted in no further bleeding in 5. Bleeding recurred in 4 of the 5 patients who had no source identified during intraoperative enteroscopy. Of the 2 patients undergoing intraoperative enteroscopy to evaluate extent of angioectasias, additional angioectasias were found in 1 patient; both patients underwent surgical resection, and 1 patient had recurrent bleeding. Complications included serosal tears, 3 (2 requiring resection); avulsion of superior mesenteric vein, 1; postoperative congestive heart failure, 2; azotemia, 1; and prolonged ileus, 1. There were no deaths. CONCLUSIONS: The terminal ileum was reached 93% of the time with intraoperative enteroscopy. For patients with GI bleeding of obscure origin the diagnostic yield of intraoperative enteroscopy was 58%. Major operative morbidity occurred in 4 patients.     

Intraoperative enteroscopy in the management of obscure gastrointestinal bleeding

Obscure gastrointestinal bleeding has long been a diagnostic challenge because of the relative inaccessibility of small bowel to standard endoscopic evaluation. Intraoperative enteroscopy indications have been reduced by the development of deep enteroscopy techniques and video capsule endoscopy. In light of the current advances, this review aimed at evaluating the intraoperative enteroscopy technical aspects, study results and an ongoing role for intraoperative enteroscopy in obscure gastrointestinal bleeding management. Intraoperative enteroscopy allows complete small bowel exploration in 57–100% of cases. A bleeding source can be identified in 80% of cases. Main causes are vascular lesions (61%) and benign ulcers (19%). When a lesion is found, intraoperative enteroscopy allows successful and recurrence-free management of gastrointestinal bleeding in 76% of cases. The reported mortality is 5% and morbidity is 17%. The recurrence of bleeding is observed in 13–52% of cases. With the recent development of deep enteroscopy techniques, intraoperative enteroscopy remains indicated when small bowel lesions (i) have been identified by a preoperative work-up, (ii) cannot be definitively managed by angiographic embolization, endoscopic treatment or when surgery is required and (iii) cannot be localized by external examination during surgical explorations. Surgeons and endoscopists must exercise caution with intraoperative enteroscopy to avoid the use of a low yield, highly morbid procedure.     

The small bowel as a source of gastrointestinal blood loss

The small bowel is a rare but important source of blood loss from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. In approximately 5% of all patients with GI bleeding, no cause for the bleeding is evident even after an extensive workup. This bleeding is often termed "gastrointestinal bleeding of obscure origin" or "obscure gastrointestinal bleed" (OGIB). Recent advancements in enteroscopy have contributed to a better understanding of the small bowel as a source of bleeding. On average, 27% of patients with OGIB have been shown to have lesions in the small bowel, with common findings including arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) and small bowel tumors. The trend in primary diagnostic workup for obscure GI bleeding or suspected small bowel lesions is shifting toward enteroscopic examination. Availability of an accessory channel now offers the clinician management options such as endoscopic injection therapy, electrocautery, and polypectomy. The "gold standard" for examination of the entire small bowel is intraoperative enteroscopy. A newer technique involving laparascopic assistance may lower the morbidity associated with this examination. Combined hormonal therapy may be an alternative treatment for patients with AVMs or an unknown cause of bleeding after enteroscopic examination.     

Follow-up of patients with obscure gastrointestinal bleeding after capsule endoscopy and intraoperative enteroscopy

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Capsule endoscopy (CE) is highly sensitive to detect the bleeding source in patients with obscure gastrointestinal bleeding compared with intraoperative enteroscopy (IOE). Long-term follow-up information of patients undergoing CE and IOE for investigation and treatment of chronic gastrointestinal bleeding is lacking. METHODOLOGY: 50 patients with obscure gastrointestinal bleeding underwent CE and IOE. Follow-up data of 47 patients (30 men, 17 women, mean age 60.9 +/- 16.8 years) were available (3 patients lost in follow-up). Clinical outcome was assessed with a standardized patient questionnaire and personal communication with referring physicians. RESULTS: Bleeding sources were detected and effective treated during intraoperative enteroscopy (argon plasma coagulation or surgical resection) in 34 patients [(angiodysplasias (n = 22), ulcers (n = 5), malignant tumors (n = 3), Meckel's diverticulum (n = 1), jejunal varices (n = 1), bleeding ileum diverticulosis (n = 1), hyperplastic polyp (n = 1)]. Mean follow-up was 346.3 days (range 253-814 days). Clinical signs of recurrent gastrointestinal bleeding occurred in 12 of 47 patients (25.5%) [positive fecal occult blood test (n = 2), anemia (n = 2), melena (n = 3), hematochezia (= 5)]. In 3 patients (6.4%) no further therapy was necessary, 9 patients (19.1%) needed blood transfusions (range 2-62 units), endoscopic or surgical interventions to control rebleeding. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the present study support the proposal that capsule endoscopy could be used as the first-choice investigation in patients with obscure gastrointestinal bleeding.     

Small bowel bleeding

Opinion statement The management of patients with small bowel bleeding remains a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. In most gastrointestinal bleeding episodes, the source of hemorrhage is localized to either the upper gastrointestinal tract or colon; however, in about 5% of cases, upper endoscopy and colonoscopy are nondiagnostic, and the small intestine is the site of bleeding. Patients with suspected small bowel source of bleeding may present with either occult blood loss or recurrent overt gastrointestinal hemorrhage requiring frequent blood transfusions and hospitalizations. Knowing the etiology and site of hemorrhage is essential prior to initiating appropriate therapy. The most common causes of small bowel bleeding are vascular ectasia, tumors, ulcerative diseases, and Meckel’s diverticula. For patients with severe obscure bleeding, push enteroscopy with a 220- to 250-cm enteroscope is strongly recommended. This procedure provides not only a thorough examination for diagnosis, but also allows for biopsy, tattooing, and hemostasis of lesions. If enteroscopy is nondiagnostic, capsule endoscopy is recommended. A diagnostic capsule endoscopy will direct appropriate medical, endoscopic, or surgical intervention, depending on whether the lesion is single or multiple, and whether the patient is a surgical candidate for intraoperative enteroscopy. Intraoperative enteroscopy should be strongly considered in patients with recurrent bleeding and a nondiagnostic evaluation. Laparoscopy and intraoperative enteroscopy is highly recommended in young patients (< 50 years of age) because there is an increased frequency of small bowel tumors and Meckel’s diverticulum which are amenable to surgical therapy.     

Accurate diagnosis and successful treatment for massive obscure small intestinal bleeding by means of intra-operative enteroscopy: a case report

Obscure gastrointestinal bleeding from the jejunum and ileum is always difficult to diagnose. Unstable patients with massive bleeding are not good candidates either for radiological studies or traditional endoscopic techniques. They usually need urgent operations to stop the bleeding. To identify the lesions, intraoperative enteroscopy is crucial for a better curing rate and for preventing massive unnecessary bowel resection. We report a 53-year-old unstable patient with massive obscure small intestinal bleeding. Urgent laparotomy with intraoperative enteroscopy was done. Two bleeding ulcers in the distal ileum were accurately identified and the diseased ileum was resected. Intraoperative enteroscopy may be a choice of diagnostic and therapeutic modality for unstable patients with obscure small intestinal bleeding.     

Preoperative "two-way" enteroscopy,followed by intraoperative enteroscopy in a patient with obscure-overt gastrointestinal bleeding and severe iron-deficiency anemia

We present the case of a 69-year-old woman admitted to hospital because of chronic gastrointestinal bleeding of an unknown source with a consequent severe iron deficiency anemia (IDA), undiagnosed for the past 25 years. In the last three years the episodes of severe bleeding became frequent, usually followed by melena. The patient was admitted 11 times in different departments without the identification of the bleeding source. During the evolution of the disease, the biological exams showed a severe IDA with low values of hemoglobin, low serum iron, mixed deficiency depicted by bone-marrow examination, and a reticulocyte crisis after parenterally administered iron. Repeated upper (6) and lower (2) gastrointestinal endoscopies failed to find a source of bleeding. Push enteroscopy allowed the visualization of approximately 40 cm of the proximal jejunum, after the Treitz angle, and demonstrated multiple punctiform jejunal angiodysplasias, which bled excessively after bipolar coagulation. We also performed a total colonoscopy with intubation of the ileo-cecal valve and visualization of the terminal ileum on approximately 30 cm, without any pathological findings. Because endoscopic treatment was ineffective, we decided to perform a segmentary enterectomy, with the length of small bowel resection tailored by intraoperative enteroscopy. A favourable evolution after limited resection of the small bowel indicated the importance of both preoperative "two-way" enteroscopy associated with intraoperative enteroscopy for diagnosing and treating the source of obscure gastrointestinal bleeding     

A prospective two-center study comparing wireless capsule endoscopy with intraoperative enteroscopy in patients with obscure GI bleeding

BACKGROUND: Capsule endoscopy enables noninvasive diagnostic examination of the entire small intestine. However, sensitivity and specificity of capsule endoscopy have not been adequately defined. We, therefore, compared capsule endoscopy by using intraoperative enteroscopy as a criterion standard in patients with obscure GI bleeding. METHODS: Forty-seven consecutive patients with obscure GI bleeding (11 with ongoing overt bleeding, 24 with previous overt bleeding, and 12 with obscure-occult bleeding) from two German gastroenterologic centers were included. All patients who had a prior nondiagnostic evaluation, including upper endoscopy, colonoscopy with a retrograde examination of the distal ileum, and push enteroscopy, underwent capsule endoscopy followed by intraoperative enteroscopy. RESULTS: Capsule endoscopy identified lesions in 100% of the patients with ongoing overt bleeding, 67% of the patients with previous overt bleeding, and 67% of the patients with obscure-occult bleeding. Angiectasias were the most common source of bleeding (n = 22). Capsule endoscopy showed the source of bleeding in 74.4% of all patients. The method was more effective in patients with ongoing bleeding. Compared with intraoperative enteroscopy sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values of capsule endoscopy were 95%, 75%, 95%, and 86%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Capsule endoscopy has high sensitivity and specificity to detect a bleeding source in patients with obscure GI bleeding. Thus, wireless capsule endoscopy can be recommended as part of the routine work-up in patients with obscure GI bleeding.     

Capsule enteroscopy vs. other diagnostic procedures in diagnosing obscure gastrointestinal bleeding: a cost-effectiveness study

BACKGROUND: Capsule enteroscopy is considered the gold standard for evaluating patients with obscure gastrointestinal bleeding. The costs of capsule enteroscopy examination, however, make it uncertain whether the clinically relevant diagnostic gain is also associated with cost savings. AIM: To evaluate the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of capsule enteroscopy in patients with obscure gastrointestinal bleeding. METHODS: Retrospective study was carried out in nine Italian gastroenterology units from 2003 to 2005. Data on 369 consecutive patients with obscure gastrointestinal bleeding were collected. The diagnostic yield of capsule enteroscopy vs. other imaging procedures was evaluated as a measure of efficacy. The values of Diagnosis Related Group 175 (euro 1884.00 for obscure-occult bleeding and euro 2141.00 for obscure-overt bleeding) were calculated as measures of economic outcomes in the cost analysis. RESULTS: Obscure and occult gastrointestinal bleeding was recorded in 177 patients (48%) with a mean duration of anemia history of 17.6+/-20.7 months. Among patients, 60.9% had had at least one hospital admission, 21.2% at least two, and 1.2% of obscure bleeders up to nine admissions. Overall, 58.4% of patients had positive findings with capsule enteroscopy compared with 28.0% with other imaging procedures (P<0.001). The mean cost of a positive diagnosis with capsule enteroscopy was euro 2090.76 and that of other procedures was euro 3828.83 with a mean cost saving of euro 1738.07 (P<0.001) for one positive diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: Capsule enteroscopy is a cost-saving approach in the evaluation of patients with obscure gastrointestinal bleeding.     

Capsule Endoscopy Versus Push Enteroscopy for Evaluation of Obscure Gastrointestinal Bleeding with 1-Year Outcomes

Because of the low diagnostic yield of standard radiologic tests for identifying sources of obscure gastrointestinal bleeding in the small intestine, we compared wireless video capsule endoscopy with push enteroscopy and small-bowel follow-through. Patients referred to Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, Arizona, between August and December 2001 for evaluation of obscure gastrointestinal bleeding were potential candidates. Eligible patients had previously inconclusive endoscopy, colonoscopy, small-bowel follow-through, and other radiologic studies. Participants underwent capsule endoscopy and enteroscopy (within 24 hr). The primary end point was localization of any bleeding source, with 1-year telephone follow-up. Capsule endoscopy yielded positive findings in 10 of 20 patients (11 men; mean age, 69 years), 6 of whom had negative enteroscopy and small-bowel follow-through. No patient with negative findings on capsule endoscopy had positive findings on enteroscopy and small-bowel follow-through. At follow-up, 19 patients reported fewer transfusions, gastrointestinal procedures, and hospitalizations. Capsule endoscopy identified more lesions and improved outcomes.Published as an abstract at Digestive Disease Week, San Francisco, California, May 19–22, 2002.