Radon concentrations in elementary schools in Kuwait

Measurements of indoor radon concentrations were performed in 25 classrooms in the capital city of Kuwait from September 2003 to March 2004 using track etch detectors. The investigation was focused on area, ventilation, windows, air conditioners, fans, and floor number. All the schools have nearly the same design. Mean indoor radon concentration was higher for case subjects (classrooms) than for control subjects (locations in inert gas, p < 0.001). The mean alpha dose equivalent rate for case subjects, 0.97 +/- 0.25 mSv y, was higher than the radiation dose equivalent rate value of control subjects, 0.43 +/- 0.11 mSv y. The average radon concentrations were found to be 16 +/- 4 Bq m for the first floor and 19 +/- 4.8 Bq m for the second floor after subtraction of the control. These values lead to average effective dose equivalent rates of 0.40 +/- 0.10 and 0.48 +/- 0.12 mSv y, respectively. The equilibrium factor between radon and its progeny was found to be 0.6 +/- 0.2.     

Population dose due to natural radiation in Hong Kong

In densely populated cities such as Hong Kong where people live and work in high-rise buildings that are all built with concrete, the indoor gamma dose rate and indoor radon concentration are not wide ranging. Indoor gamma dose rates (including cosmic rays) follow a normal distribution with an arithmetic mean of 0.22 +/- 0.04 microGy h(-1), whereas indoor radon concentrations follow a log-normal distribution with geometric means of 48 +/- 2 Bq m(-3) and 90 +/- 2 Bq m(-3) for the two main categories of buildings: residential and non-residential. Since different occupations result in different occupancy in different categories of buildings, the annual total dose [indoor and outdoor radon effective dose + indoor and outdoor gamma absorbed dose (including cosmic ray)] to the population in Hong Kong was estimated based on the number of people for each occupation; the occupancy of each occupation; indoor radon concentration distribution and indoor gamma dose rate distribution for each category of buildings; outdoor radon concentration and gamma dose rate; and indoor and outdoor cosmic ray dose rates. The result shows that the annual doses for every occupation follow a log-normal distribution. This is expected since the total dose is dominated by radon effective dose, which has a log-normal distribution. The annual dose to the population of Hong Kong is characterized by a log-normal distribution with a geometric mean of 2.4 mSv and a geometric standard deviation of 1.3 mSv.     

广东地区儿童白血病与天然放射性的关系

目的 了解广东省儿童青少年白血病发病的生态学病因.方法 采用疾病监测结合文献查阅,用SPSS 13.0软件进行Spearman等级相关分析.结果 广东省儿童(0～18岁)白血病发病率具有明显的地区差异,茂名地区最低为0.42/10万,江门地区最高为3.13/10万,危险性相差7.45倍,与自然地理环境中的天然放射性核素226Ra以及232Th有等级相关,相关系数(rs)分别为0.70(P=0.011)、0.66(P=0.020),其中急性淋巴细胞性白血病与226Ra、232Th的rs分别为0.66(P=0.019)和0.64(P=0.025).分析室内γ辐射剂量率与儿童白血病发病率存在相关性,rs为0.59(P=0.042),同时对人均总有效剂量当量与儿童白血病关系进行分析,上述相关性仍然存在rs=0.59(P=0.042).结论 广东省儿童青少年白血病发病可能与该地区土壤天然放射性核素以及天然放射性有关.     

黄山市环境辐射水平及居民受照剂量调查分析

目的研究黄山市环境辐射水平及居民受照剂量,为辐射防护和经济建设提供背景资料。方法采用FD-71型闪烁辐射仪,测量室内外、道路γ辐射剂量率;采用低本底闪烁测氡仪,测量氡浓度;采用γ能谱分析方法,测量建材中放射性核素226Ra、232Th、40K的含量。结果室内、室外、道路γ辐射剂量率均值分别为12.2×10-8Gy.h-1、8.5×10-8Gy.h-1、8.6×10-8Gy.h-1。地球γ辐射水平室内比室外高,平均比值为1.44,道路与室外的γ辐射水平差异无统计学意义。室内和室外宇宙射线辐射剂量率分别为2.7×10-8Gy.h-1和3.0×10-8Gy.h-1。室内、室外氡浓度均值分别为27.3 Bq.m-3和13.2 Bq.m-3。建筑材料除碳化砖及个别类型中的样品外,其他建材内、外照射指数均低于国家标准。结论黄山市环境辐射外照射所致居民人均年有效剂量当量为0.92mSv,其辐射水平属正常本底水平;室内、外氡浓度致居民受到的人均年有效剂量当量为1.88 mSv。在世界值范围内,传统建材放射性核素含量与世界建材典型值比较接近,其他建材有部分则高于世界建材典型值,应引起相关部门的注意。     

Occupational doses from radon in Spanish spas

Recent international recommendations have included exposure to natural radiation as one of the sources to monitor in certain occupationally exposed groups. Among those mentioned are workers in thermal spas, who may be exposed to high radiation doses due to the high concentration of radon in the indoor air of the spa. This paper presents the methodology and the results of an evaluation of radiation doses to the staff in different thermal spas in Spain. Different series of samples were collected and measurements made for the radon concentrations in water in 54 spas and in air in 20 spas. In six of the latter group, the air radon concentration was studied in different working areas occupied by the employees. The radon concentrations in water were between <2 and 775 x 10(3) Bq m(-3). The radon concentrations in air were between <10 and 5,200 Bq m(-3). The latter were used to estimate the dose received by each occupational group in the spa by taking into account the radon concentration in their main working area. By means of an exposure-dose conversion factor of 1.43 Sv per J h m(-3), the estimated effective doses were found to lie between 1 and 44 mSv y(-1). This upper limit is higher than the recommended annual limit of 20 mSv y(-1) for an occupational dose.     

Nationwide survey of radon levels in Korea

A nationwide radon survey was conducted to provide data on the annual average indoor radon concentration in Korean homes. This survey also provided data on the variation of radon concentration with season, house type, and building age. The arithmetic mean (AM) of annual radon concentration in Korean homes was 53.4 +/- 57.5 Bq m(-3). The indoor radon concentration showed a lognormal distribution with a geometric mean (GM) and its standard deviation (GSD) of 43.3 +/- 1.8 Bq m(-3). The radon concentrations in the traditional Korean-style houses were about two times higher than those in apartments and row houses. The average annual outdoor radon concentration was 23.3 Bq m(-3). The average annual effective dose to the general public from radon was 1.63 mSv y(-1).     

寿光日光温室春秋季氡浓度变化趋势及辐射剂量估算

目的初步了解日光温室中氡浓度的本底值和变化趋势,估算温室作业人员氡及其子体造成的年均辐射剂量,探讨温、湿度对氡浓度的影响。方法 2009年5月和10月分别对选定的2座温室进行调查,使用Model1027连续测氡仪和干湿球温度计对温室环境中的氡浓度、温度和相对湿度进行8h连续监测。结果在测定范围内,5月温室氡浓度、温湿度最大值分别为355.0Bq/m3、30.5℃和93%,10月各指标的最大值分别为235.4Bq/m3、37.5℃和72%;根据实际情况粗略估算的温室作业人员年均辐射剂量为0.8686mSv。结论温度和相对湿度可能是影响温室中氡浓度的重要因素;温室作业人员由于职业因素所造成的氡及其子体的辐射剂量略高于当地平均室内暴露所造成的辐射剂量,氡子体对作业人员健康的影响应引起重视。     

Natural radioactivity and radiation exposure at the Minjingu phosphate mine in Tanzania.

In this paper the results of studies on activity and ambient radiation background around the Minjingu phosphate mine in Tanzania are presented. The outdoor dose rate in air and the activity levels of samples from and outside the mine were determined by thermoluminiscent dosimeters and a gamma spectrometer system with a Hyper Pure germanium detector system respectively. The determination of activity was made for the 226Ra, 228Ra, 228Th and 40K radionuclides. High concentrations of radium-226 were observed in phosphate rock (5760+/-107 Bq kg(-1)), waste rock (4250+/-98 Bq kg(-1)), wild leaf vegetation (650+/-11 Bq kg(-1)), edible leaf vegetation (393+/-9 Bq kg(-1)), surface water (4.7+/-0.4 mBq l(-1)) and chicken feed (4+/-0.1 Bq kg(-1)) relative to selected control sites. These findings suggest a radiation health risk particularly when the samples are ingested, because the internal exposure may give rise to an effective dose exceeding 20 mSv which is the annual limit of intake of natural radionuclides recommended by the ICRP. On the other hand, the radiation dose from ambient air over five years at the phosphate mine ranges from 1375 to 1475 nGy h(-1) with an average of 1415 nGy h(-1). The average is about 28 times that of the global average background radiation from terrestrial sources, and about 12 times the allowed average dose limit for public exposure over five consecutive years. Future investigations on the occupancy factor, external dose rate and radon and radon progeny exposure in drinking water, buildings and activity content in the locally grown foodstuffs are proposed, for the realistic quantification of the overall exposure of workers and public at Minjingu, and remedial measures for future radiation safety.     

Regular radon activity concentration and effective dose measurements inside the great pyramid with passive nuclear track detectors

Radon activity concentrations and equilibrium factors inside the great pyramid of "Cheops" were measured with passive nuclear track detectors. The variation of these concentrations in location was investigated. Seasonal variation of radon activity concentrations with winter maximum and summer minimum were observed inside the pyramid. The 1-y average radon activity concentration ranged from a minimum of 20 to a maximum of 170 Bq m(-3). Results show that the yearly average equilibrium factor between radon and its progeny was assessed as 0.16 and 0.36 inside the pyramid and near entrance, respectively. Moreover, the estimated annual effective dose was 0.05 mSv to tour guides and varied from 0.19 to 0.36 mSv for the pyramid guards; for visitors the average effective dose was 0.15 microSv per visit. These are lower than the 3-10 mSv y(-1) dose limit recommend by ICRP 65.     

Correlation among the terrestrial gamma radiation, the indoor air 222Rn, and the tap water 222Rn in Switzerland

The external gamma radiation and the indoor air Rn (222Rn) concentration were measured in 55 houses of the South East Grisons, the Urseren valley, and the Upper Rhine valley (crystalline subsoils) and in 39 houses of the Molasse basin and the Helvetic nappes (sedimentary subsoils). In homes located on a crystalline subsoil, a mean cellar gamma level of 1.40 mGy y-1 was measured, which is twice the mean gamma level of 0.70 mGy y-1 found in homes built on a sedimentary subsoil. The cellar 222Rn gas concentration is about six times higher in houses with a crystalline subsoil (1232 Bq m-3) than in houses with a sedimentary subsoil (201 Bq m-3). Although a weak correlation is observed between the mean gamma radiation levels and mean cellar 222Rn gas concentrations for the five subregions investigated, the gamma levels and the 222Rn gas concentrations do not correlate for single homes. For the population living on the ground floor of a house with a crystalline subsoil, the gamma radiation and the indoor air 222Rn lead to estimated mean exposures of 1.16 mSv and 9.44 mSv effective dose equivalent per year, respectively. In houses with a sedimentary subsoil, these mean exposures lead to 0.68 mSv y-1 and 3.22 mSv y-1, respectively. A mean tap water 222Rn content of 38.3 Bq L-1 and 10.4 Bq L-1 was measured in 31 villages with a crystalline subsoil and 73 villages with a sedimentary subsoil, respectively. Radon-222 degasing from the tap water into the indoor air leads to an additional exposure of about 0.11 mSv y-1 and 0.03 mSv y-1 in homes with a crystalline subsoil and homes with a sedimentary subsoil, respectively.     

我国锡矿山的辐射水平和放射卫生防护对策研究

目的 探索辐射水平在我国锡矿山的分布情况,在此基础上提出放射卫生防护的建议,为保护锡矿山井下工人身体健康提供科学依据。方法 分析、应用文献资料和现场调查的测量结果,得到了锡矿山井下工作场所的辐射水平。结果 锡矿山井下环境中γ辐射空气吸收剂量率绝大部份属于正常本底辐射水平。早期,锡矿山井下工作场所空气中氡浓度及氡子体α潜能浓度浓典型值分别为3.12 kBq/m³和5.61μJ/m³。目前,绝大多数锡矿山井下工作场所空气中氡浓度及氡子体α潜能浓度,分别低于1 000 Bq/m³和3.57μJ/m³。结论 锡矿山工作人员中凡个人年有效剂量大于1mSv或物料中天然铀比活度大于1 Bq/g的锡矿山均应进行放射卫生防护的审管。锡矿山井下工作场所空气中氡及氡子体α潜能浓度和井下环境中γ辐射空气吸收剂量率管理限值分别为1 000 Bq/m³、3.57μJ/m³和1μGy/h。锡矿山井下矿工个人剂量管理目标值定为10mSv/a。工作人员总的年有效剂量超过10 mSv时,工作人员应视为放射工作人员。     

Assessment of natural radioactivity and radon exhalation rate in Sannur cave, eastern desert of Egypt.

Activity concentrations of 238U, 232Th and 40K in rocks and soil samples collected from Sannur cave, Beni Suef governorate, eastern desert of Egypt, were determined using the high-resolution gamma spectrometry technique. The results show that the concentrations of the naturally occurring radionuclides are the following: 238U ranged from 8.51 +/- 1.23 to 20.66 +/- 2.12 Bq kg(-1), 232Th ranged from 7.69 +/- 1.02 to 22.73 +/- 1.60 Bq kg(-1) and 40K ranged from 185.74 +/- 0.42 to 2084.70 +/- 23.30 Bq kg(-1). The radium equivalent activity (Raeq), the absorbed dose rate (D), and the external hazard index (Hex) were also calculated and compared to the international recommended values. The radon concentration and radon exhalation rate from the rock and soil samples were measured using the Can technique. The average value of annual effective dose for cave workers is 1.98 mSv y(-1), while for visitors it is 2.4 microSv per visit. The radon exhalation rate varies from 0.21 +/- 0.03 to 1.28 +/- 0.02 Bq m(-2) h(-1). A positive correlation has been observed between uranium content and radon exhalation rate.     

2009年上海市地铁车站放射性水平

[目的]了解上海市地铁车站空气氡浓度和环境γ辐射水平与变化趋势。[方法]于2009年8月至12月,在上海市已开通并在地下运行的地铁线路(1、2、4、6、8和9号线)共98个站点中随机抽取73个地铁站点,进行环境放射性水平(包括空气氡浓度和环境地表γ辐射剂量率)检测。瞬时氡浓度检测采用AB-4连续型氡测量仪,环境地表γ辐射剂量率检测采用FD-3013H智能化X/γ辐射仪。[结果]上海市6条地铁线路各站点空气氡浓度的均值为9.9Bq/m3,范围为1.2～28.4Bq/m3,明显低于国家标准规定限值。此外,各站点的环境地表γ辐射剂量率均值为(0.14±0.02)μSv/h,范围为0.07～0.24μSv/h,在天然本底辐射水平波动范围内。[结论]上海市投入运营的地铁线路各站点放射性水平属天然本底辐射水平,空气氡浓度明显低于国家标准规定限值。     

Chromosome aberrations study of pupils in high radon level elementary school

The ICRP Publication 65 recommends 200-600 Bq x m(-3) as the indoor radon action level for the general public. In Slovenia, a value of 400 Bq x m(-3) has been proposed but not yet approved. In a nation-wide radon project financed by the Health Inspectorate of Slovenia, it was discovered that the elementary school named "S3" belongs to a group of schools with elevated winter indoor radon concentrations up to 7,000 Bq x m(-3). Opening windows and doors during classes substantially decreased radon concentrations, but very seldom below 1,000 Bq x m(-3). Yearly effective doses for pupils, estimated according to ICRP 65, ranged from 7 to 11 mSv. Because the pupils have been subjected to the elevated radon concentrations, special preventive health checks have been performed. The examination protocol included mutagenetic tests, one for structural chromosomal aberrations and the other a micronucleus test. Altogether 85 pupils (37 girls and 48 boys) from the first four grades between the ages of 9 and 12 y were examined. An increase in cytogenetic damage was found for these pupils, compared to the control group, composed of pupils of the same age from another area with indoor radon concentrations in their school of below 400 Bq x m(-3). The incidence of structural chromosomal aberrations reached 2.0% (0.5-4) and micronucleus test was 6.52 per 500 cells with a maximum of 15 in some cases. In the control group structural chromosomal aberrations varied from 0.5 to 2.5%, while the maximum incidence of micronucleus was 9 micronucleus per 500 CB cells. The results obtained are preliminary and suggest a need to expand the study. A long-term radon survey, at least over a year, of the homes and wider residential environment of the pupils would be necessary to assess the correlation between radon exposure and both structural chromosomal aberrations and micronucleus findings.     

皖苏两省地下煤矿环境中的放射性水平研究

目的 为了了解皖苏两省地下煤矿环境中的放射性水平,对两省煤炭主采区的地下煤矿进行抽样调查。方法 同时采用瞬时法和短期积累(活性炭被动吸收)法测量井下氡浓度,直接和热释光法测量γ辐射剂量率,并对煤及矸石进行取样分析。结果 两省4个典型煤矿的井下氡浓度为6.6~102.3Bq/m³,γ辐射剂量率为9×10^-8~24×10^-8Gy/h,煤及矸石的²³⁸U为74.6~135.6Bq/kg、²²⁶Ra为55.8~98.3Bq/kg、²³²Th为18.4~112.8Bq/kg、⁴⁰K为41.6~544.3Bq/kg。估算地下煤矿矿工接受的有效剂量为0.22~1.05mSv/a,其中氡及其子体产生的剂量为0.04~0.57mSv/a,γ外照射产生的剂量为0.18~0.48 mSv/a,两省总的集体剂量为91.7人·Sv/万t。结论 煤矿井下工作人员的辐射照射问题值得关注。     

新疆某露天煤矿放射性水平调查及人员受照剂量评价

目的 对新疆某开采多年的伴生放射性大型露天煤矿的各场所γ剂量率水平和氡浓度水平进行调查和分析;并评价从业人员所受有效剂量。方法 采用便携式γ剂量率仪FH40G对矿区进行定点监测,利用连续测氡仪对场所内氡浓度水平进行24 h连续监测;并根据测量的γ剂量率和氡浓度估算人员受照剂量。结果 该露天煤矿γ剂量率范围为51.4～435.8 nGy/h,氡浓度24 h平均值为15～25 Bq/m³,人员年有效剂量范围为0.29～1.29 mSv/a。结论 各场所氡浓度水平较低,不需要采取补救行动;大部分场所人员受照剂量远远低于标准要求,排土场局部地区需要采取一定的防护措施。     

十堰市城区居民室内氡浓度调查结果与分析

目的 对十堰市城区居民室内氡浓度进行监测,分析居民室内氡浓度水平及影响因素。方法 从2019年4月到7月,采用RSKS标准型探测器对十堰市城区共计125户居民室内氡浓度进行测量并分析。结果 2019年所监测的十堰城区居民室内氡浓度结果呈偏态分布,范围为13.8～145 Bq/m³,M(P₂₅,P₇₅)为38.3(29.0,62.0) Bq/m³,居民因吸入氡及其子体产生的年均有效剂量估算值为0.52～5.50 mSv,M(P₂₅,P₇₅)为1.45(1.10,2.36) mSv,与相关文献一致;不同建筑结构(H=14.10,P<0.001)、楼层(H=24.41,P<0.001)和地区(H=8.963,P<0.05)均是居民室内氡浓度水平的影响因素,且差异均有统计学意义。结论 十堰市城区居民室内氡浓度小于国家标准限值,但在日常生活中还是需要注意采取合适的方法,尽量降低家中氡浓度。     

Measurement of the natural radioactivity in building materials used in Ankara and assessment of external doses

A total of 183 samples of 20 different commonly used structural and covering building materials were collected from housing and other building construction sites and from suppliers in Ankara to measure the natural radioactivity due to the presence of (226)Ra, (232)Th and (40)K. The measurements were carried out using gamma-ray spectrometry with two HPGe detectors. The specific activities of the different building materials studied varied from 0.5 +/- 0.1 to 144.9 +/- 4.9 Bq kg(-1), 0.6 +/- 0.2 to 169.9 +/- 6.6 Bq kg(-1) and 2.0 +/- 0.1 to 1792.3 +/- 60.8 Bq kg(-1) for (226)Ra, (232)Th and (40)K, respectively. The results show that the lowest mean values of the specific activity of (226)Ra, (232)Th and (40)K are 0.8 +/- 0.5, 0.9 +/- 0.4 and 4.1 +/- 1.4 Bq kg(-1), respectively, measured in travertine tile while the highest mean values of the specific activity of the same radionuclides are 78.5 +/- 18.1 (ceramic wall tile), 77.4 +/- 53.0 (granite tile) and 923.4 +/- 161.0 (white brick), respectively. The radium equivalent activity (Ra(eq)), the gamma-index, the indoor absorbed dose rate and the corresponding annual effective dose were evaluated to assess the potential radiological hazard associated with these building materials. The mean values of the gamma-index and the estimated annual effective dose due to external gamma radiation inside the room for structural building materials ranged from 0.15 to 0.89 and 0.2 to 1.1 mSv, respectively. Applying criteria recently recommended for building materials in the literature, four materials meet the exemption annual dose criterion of 0.3 mSv, five materials meet the annual dose limit of 1 mSv and only one material slightly exceeds this limit. The mean values of the gamma-index for all building materials were lower than the upper limit of 1.     

Naturally occurring radioactive material from the aluminium industry--a case study: the Egyptian Aluminium Company, Nag Hammady, Egypt.

The activity concentrations and the gamma-absorbed dose rates of the terrestrial naturally occurring radionuclides (226)Ra and (232)Th were determined in samples of bauxite, alumina and aluminium dross tailings industrial waste (used to produce two types of alums) using high purity germanium (HPGe) gamma ray spectrometry. The bauxite and alumina are imported by Egyptalum (The Egyptian Aluminium Company, Nag Hammady, Egypt) from Guinea and India. The activity concentrations in the bauxite range from 29 +/- 1 to 112 +/- 6 Bq kg(-1) for (226)Ra, and 151 +/- 8 to 525 +/- 12 Bq kg(-1) for (232)Th, with mean values of 62 +/- 8 and 378 +/- 50 Bq kg(-1), respectively. With respect to alumina and tail, the mean values are 5.7 +/- 1.1 and 8.4 +/- 0.8 Bq kg(-1) for (226)Ra and 7.2 +/- 1.6 and 10.7 +/- 1.2 Bq kg(-1) for (232)Th. Potassium-40 was not detected in any of the studied samples. The measured activity concentrations of (226)Ra and (232)Th in bauxite are higher than the world average while in alumina and tail they are lower. As a measure of radiation hazard to the occupational workers and members of the public, the Ra equivalent activities and external gamma dose rates due to natural radionuclides at 1 m above the ground surface were calculated. The external gamma-radiation doses received by the Egyptalum workers are 97, 409, 8.5 and 12.7 microSv y(-1) for the Guinean and Indian bauxite, the alumina and tail, respectively, which is well below the recommended allowed dose of 1 mSv y(-1) for non-exposed workers.     

Current concentration of artificial radionuclides and estimated radiation doses from 137Cs around the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, the Semipalatinsk Nuclear Testing Site, and in Nagasaki

To evaluate current environmental contamination and contributions from internal and external exposure due to the accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (CNPP) and nuclear tests at the Semipalatinsk Nuclear Testing Site (SNTS), concentrations of artificial radionuclides in edible mushrooms, soils and stones from each area were analyzed by gamma spectrometry. Annual effective doses were calculated for each area from the cesium contamination. Calculated internal effective doses of (137)Cs due to ingestion of mushrooms were 1.8 × 10(-1) mSv/year (y) in Gomel city (around CNPP), 1.7 × 10(-1) mSv/y in Korosten city (around CNPP), 2.8 × 10(-4) mSv/y in Semipalatinsk city, and 1.3 × 10(-4) mSv/y in Nagasaki. Calculated external effective doses of (137)Cs were 3.4 × 10(-2) mSv/y in Gomel city, 6.2 × 10(-2) mSv/y in Korosten city, 2.0 × 10(-4) mSv/y in Semipalatinsk city, and 1.3 × 10(-4) mSv/y in Nagasaki. Distribution of radionuclides in stones collected beside Lake Balapan (in SNTS) were (241)Am (49.4 ± 1.4 Bq/kg), (137)Cs (406.3 ± 1.7 Bq/kg), (58)Co (3.2 ± 0.5 Bq/kg), and (60)Co (125.9 ± 1.1 and 126.1 ± 1.1 Bq/kg). The present study revealed that dose rates from internal and external exposure around CNPP were not sufficiently low and radiation exposure potency still exists even though current levels are below the public dose limit of 1 mSv/y (ICRP1991). Moreover, parts of the SNTS area may be still contaminated by artificial radionuclides derived from nuclear tests. Long-term follow-up of environmental monitoring around CNPP and SNTS, as well as evaluation of health effects in the population residing around these areas, may contribute to radiation safety with a reduction of unnecessary exposure of residents.