胸腰椎骨折脱位伤椎固定的可行性研究

目的探讨后路手术治疗合并前、后纵韧带断裂及椎间盘破裂的胸腰椎脊柱骨折脱位的疗效。方法2001年1月至2004年5月收治18例合并前、后纵韧带断裂及椎间盘破裂的脊柱骨折脱位患者，均为男性，年龄19-58岁，平均38岁，均合并截瘫。受伤节段为T11-L3。侧位X线片示骨折椎体楔形变，其中6例椎体后缘高度有丢失。骨折椎体高度压缩程度为1／4～3／4，上位椎体向前脱位25％～100％，2例合并侧方脱位。均于伤后10d内行后路减压椎弓根螺钉植入复位固定融合术。8例采用目前国内通用的在骨折椎体相邻上下椎体植入四枚椎弓根螺钉的复位固定技术，10例采用在骨折椎和相邻上下椎植入六枚椎弓根螺钉的复位固定技术。结果全部病例随访3个月-3年，平均18个月。8例采用二椎体四枚椎弓根螺钉植入者术后骨折椎体高度无改变5例，部分改善3例；骨折椎上位相邻椎脱位部分纠正6例，无变化1例，加重1例。1例出现撑开过度，1例术后3个月出现螺钉松动拔出，1例术后6个月出现断棒。10例三椎体六枚椎弓根螺钉植入者术后骨折椎体复位达80％～100％，骨折椎上位相邻椎脱位均完全复位。术后近期内无严重并发症。结论应用三椎体六枚椎弓根螺钉植入复位固定治疗合并前、后纵韧带断裂及椎间盘破裂的脊柱骨折脱位在操作技术上是可行的，对恢复椎体高度和纠正脱位有效。     

非透视下AF系统固定治疗无或轻微症状胸腰椎爆裂性骨折

目的　探讨在非透视下使用AF系统固定的方法与操作技术 ,使AF等经椎弓根内固定在无术中透视条件的医院能广泛应用。方法　对 14例无或仅有轻微症状的不稳定胸腰椎爆裂骨折患者在非透视下行AF系统复位固定 ,其中行椎管减压 8例。结果　所有病例的定位与进钉均一次完成 ,无一例出现早期并发症。椎体高度和椎管容积的恢复及骨碎片复位满意。所有螺钉基本与终板平行 ,有 4钉出现水平偏差 ,但角度 <5°。结论　严格掌握胸腰椎爆裂骨折的手术适应证和熟练操作程序 ,无透视监控下操作同样安全可行     

C臂导航在胸腰椎椎弓根内固定术中应用

目的 探讨计算机导航技术在胸腰椎椎弓根内固定术中的应用价值.方法 在计算机导航下对15例胸腰椎疾患行胸腰椎椎弓根内固定术,术中共用72枚椎弓根螺钉固定.术后进行X线透视及CT平扫,用Richter分类法对螺钉固定位置进行评估.结果 所有病例全部在导航下完成,15例均获随访,时间6～24个月,无椎弓根螺钉松动及断裂.螺钉位置根据X线及CT复查结果,按Richter分类法进行评估:优68枚(94.4%),良4枚(5.6%).术中透视未发现螺钉突入椎管及穿出椎体外,未发生神经根、脊髓、血管损伤.术中C臂X线机透视的次数明显减少,手术时间缩短,手术成功率明显提高.结论 C臂导航能够明显减少胸腰椎椎弓根内固定术中的误差,提高手术的精确性.     

手法复位经皮椎弓根内固定术在胸腰椎骨折中的应用

目的探讨应用手法复位经皮椎弓根内固定技术治疗胸腰椎骨折的疗效。方法胸腰椎骨折36例,使用长尾椎弓根固定系统,在骨折节段相邻椎体椎弓根电视透视定位后,皮肤处作4个长约1.5cm纵形切口,电视透视监视下,置入椎弓根螺钉,置棒,手法复位后,锁紧螺钉。结果平均手术时间60min,手术出血量平均60ml。术中未发生椎弓根钉误入椎管、脊髓或马尾神经损伤等并发症。结论手法复位经皮椎弓根内固定技术可使不稳定胸腰椎骨折获得较满意复位及较坚强内固定,手术操作简便,创伤及痛苦小,患者康复快。     

经皮植入椎弓根螺钉的CT扫描钉道分析和临床评价

目的：通过应用经皮穿刺植入椎弓根螺钉的后路固定系统治疗胸腰段骨折患者，以探究该微创技术的准确性和可行性。方法：应用菲力浦X线荧屏透视，经皮穿刺植入导针引导的空心椎弓根螺钉136枚，后路固定系统治疗胸腰段骨折34例。术后CT扫描观察钉道与椎弓根内侧壁、外侧壁的关系，钉尖与椎体前缘的距离、TSA角、SSA角，以及进行术后的初步临床疗效观察。结果：其中椎弓根内侧壁破裂4枚，椎弓根外侧壁破裂3枚，经皮椎弓根螺钉方向过于向头端偏斜2枚，过于向尾端偏斜1枚，经皮椎弓根螺钉钉尖稍穿透椎体前缘5枚，本组经皮椎弓根螺钉植钉失误率7．25％。结论：该技术具有一定的准确性和可行性，并发症发生率相对可以接受，但有较高操作要求，需要有经验的脊柱外科医生进行。本组病例在X线荧屏透视下完成，受辐射量大，后来植钉时透视次数明显减少，患者和医师受辐射量下降而且手术时间缩短，如结合导航技术将在微创脊柱外科领域中发挥相当作用。     

直视下胸腰椎椎弓根螺钉旋转置入法临床应用

目的 研究直视下胸腰椎椎弓根螺钉旋转置入法的成功率、安全性及可操作性方面的应用价值.方法 采用后路切口直视下旋转置入法治疗胸腰椎骨折41例,置钉166枚.结果 166枚椎弓根螺钉置入均获成功,大部分椎弓根螺钉平行了椎体的上下终板,仪有7例椎弓根螺钉与椎体的上下终板轻度成角(5°～10°),符合置钉要求,1例其中1枚螺钉置入位置偏下,术后轻度神经根刺激症状,术后四周症状完全消失.结论 直视下胸腰椎椎弓根螺钉旋转置入法更准确可靠,可有效防止硬膜及神经根的损伤.     

胸腰椎骨折经椎弓根内固定失误及其预防

[目的]探讨胸腰椎骨折经椎弓根内固定失误的原因及预防措施.[方法]回顾性分析胸腰椎经椎弓根内固定失误13例.术中误入椎管或穿出椎弓根外壁6例,螺钉断裂3例;定位失误3例;内固定未固定牢固、术后第一次X线片发现松动3例;误诊1例,1枚螺钉断裂,1枚螺钉误入椎管.[结果]2例放弃再次手术.11例接受再次手术治疗,7例去除内固定,其中有1例椎体内断钉未取出,骨折椎体的情况无明显改变,另4例2次手术、重新固定植骨融合.[结论]经椎弓根固定安全路径狭小,术前要认真阅读分析影像资料,术中透视确认,尽量避免2次置钉,可以有效地减少内固定失误.     

胸腰段椎弓根螺钉植入的节段性变化及坐标法研究

目的：设计一种椎弓根螺钉的植入方法,提高椎弓根螺钉的植入准确率。方法：对20组胸腰段椎体标本的椎弓根的测量及其形态学的研究,选用坐标方式进行进针点标识,纵轴小关节面上顶点作垂直线为纵轴,横突纵轴为坐标横轴,用直径2nm克氏针从进针点循椎弓根方向入针约15－20mm处,剪去骨外部针尾,留置定位用,并通过透视或拍摄前后位片,了解定位针头与椎弓根的关系,指导我们进行椎弓根螺的植入。结果：应用本方法在20组胸腰段（T10－L5）椎体标本上进行椎弓根螺钉植入的研究表明。T10至L5的进针点呈节段性变化。本方法设计合理,准确率达100％,临床上应用于86例胸腰段骨折患者,其中爆裂型骨折42例,压缩性骨折34例,Chance骨折4例,骨折脱位6例,置钉的优良率达93．6％,结论：本方法是椎弓根螺钉植入的一种实用有效方法,临床应用证明操作简便可靠,能有效提高植入的成功率。     

经椎板开窗减压复位加经椎弓根植骨和内固定术治疗胸腰椎爆裂性骨折

目的分析经后路椎弓根内固定加经椎板开窗椎管减压和经椎弓根椎体植骨治疗胸腰椎爆裂性骨折的疗效。方法对28例胸腰椎新鲜爆裂性骨折,患者应用后路椎弓根内固定复位,椎板开窗减压+经伤椎椎弓根向椎体前缘植入自体骨及同种异体骨或人工骨。结果术后椎体高度及生理弧度恢复满意,经随访18个月,椎体高度无明显丢失,椎体无塌陷变形,无内固定松动、断裂。结论经后路椎弓根内固定+经椎板开窗减压复位+经椎弓根椎体植骨治疗胸腰椎新鲜爆裂性骨折,手术安全,效果满意,术后并发症低,远期脊柱稳定性好。     

椎弓根螺钉在颈胸段骨折脱位中的临床运用

目的：评价椎弓根螺钉技术在颈胸段骨折脱位（C6-T2）中的运用价值。方法：2001年5月至2008年1月运用椎弓根螺钉植入技术治疗颈胸段骨折脱位患者26例,男17,女9例;年龄20-75岁,平均48．5岁。采用单纯后路椎弓根螺钉技术17例,后路椎弓根螺钉技术结合前路减压钢板内固定9例。术后3d运用CT平扫及重建片观察评价植入颈胸段椎弓根螺钉的准确性、螺钉植入相关并发症;随访观察患者颈胸段术后植骨融合情况;统计患者术前与术后6个月JOA评分及ASIA分级改善情况,综合评价患者脊髓及神经功能改善情况。结果：所有患者获得随访,随访时间3～74个月,平均36．5个月。4例完全性瘫痪患者术后6个月内死亡。共计植入椎弓根螺钉104枚,其中颈椎椎弓根74螺钉枚（其中：C516枚,C616枚,C742枚）,胸椎椎弓根螺钉30枚（其中：T1 22枚,T28枚）,所有椎弓根螺钉在术中均成功植入,无脊髓、神经根及椎动脉损伤。术后CT提示颈椎椎弓根螺钉11枚（14．9％）穿破椎弓根,其中7枚（9．5％）穿破外侧皮质,1枚（1．4％）穿破椎弓根上侧皮质,3枚（4．1％）穿破椎弓根下侧皮质。胸椎椎弓根螺钉中,3枚（10％）穿破胸椎椎弓根,其中2枚（6．7％）穿出椎弓根外侧缘,1枚（3．3％）穿破内侧缘（〈2mm）,但无临床症状。术后随访1枚C,椎弓根螺钉断裂,但患者无明显临床症状,其余无螺钉松动及断钉情况出现。所有患者固定良好,并均达到骨性融合。术后6个月患者平均JOA评分由术前（7．5±2．0）分恢复到（14．5±2．3）分,差异有统计学意义（t=6．34,P〈0．05）。ASIA分级情况,除3例完全性瘫痪患者脊髓功能术后无明显改善外,余患者术后脊髓神经功能均有不同程度恢复。结论：椎弓根螺钉在颈胸段骨折脱位治疗中安全、可靠。术者应熟练掌握颈胸段后?     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.