次声作用后小鼠脑SOD、GSH-Px、MDA的变化及姜黄素的治疗作用

目的观察次声作用后小鼠记忆功能及脑超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GSH-Px)、丙二醛(MDA)的变化和姜黄素的治疗作用并初步探讨其机制.方法Morris水迷宫成绩相近的BALB/C小鼠接受16 Hz、130dB的次声作用2 h/d,同时给予不同剂量的姜黄素,14 d后再次评定水迷宫成绩,并测定脑组织中SOD、GSH-Px、MDA的变化,各组间相互比较.结果单纯次声作用后,小鼠记忆功能明显下降,脑组织中GSH-Px活性及MDA含量上升(P＜0.05),SOD活性变化不明显.各用药组与单纯次声组相比,记忆功能改善,脑组织中GSH-Px活性及MDA含量下降(P＜0.05),SOD活性变化不明显.结论16 Hz、130dB次声可导致小鼠脑组织过氧化,使记忆功能受损.姜黄素可通过抗氧化作用减轻次声引发的这些损害.     

l-Theanine attenuates cadmium-induced neurotoxicity through the inhibition of oxidative damage and tau hyperphosphorylation

Cadmium (Cd) has long been known to induce neurological degenerative disorders. We studied effects of l-theanine, one of the major amino acid components in green tea, on Cd-induced brain injury in mice. Male ICR mice were intraperitoneally injected with l-theanine (100 or 200 mg/kg/day) or saline and after one hour these mice were orally administrated with CdCl₂ (3.75–6 mg/kg). The treatment was conducted for 8 weeks. l-Theanine significantly reduced Cd level in the mouse brain and plasma. Cd-induced neuronal cell death in the mouse cortex and hippocampus were apparently inhibited by l-theanine treatment. l-Theanine also decreased the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and ROS, and obviously elevated the levels of glutathione (GSH) and activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) in the mouse brain. Hyperphosphorylation of tau protein is proposed to be an early event for the evolution of tau pathology, and may play an important role in Cd-induced neurodegeneration. Our results showed that l-theanine significantly suppressed Cd-induced tau protein hyperphosphorylation at Ser199, Ser202, and Ser396. Mechanism study showed that l-theanine inhibited the activation of glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) which contributed to the hyperphosphorylation of tau and Cd-induced cytotoxicity. Furthermore, l-theanine reduced Cd-induced cytotoxicity possibly by interfering with the Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. In conclusion, our study indicated that l-theanine protected mice against Cd-induced neurotoxicity through reducing brain Cd level and relieved oxidative damage and tau hyperphosphorylation. Our foundings provide a novel insight into the potential use of l-theanine as prophylactic and therapeutic agents for Cd-induced neurodegenerative diseases.     

The effects of valsartan on cognitive deficits induced by aluminum trichloride and d-galactose in mice

Abstract

Objectives:

Valsartan has been reported to reduce brain beta-amyloid protein levels and improve spatial learning in the Tg2576 transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the exact mechanism of neuroprotective effects of valsartan has not been properly studied especially in cholinergic function and oxidative damage, the essential factors that undergo impairment in AD. Therefore, the present study examined the effects of valsartan on memory impairment, cholinergic dysfunction, and oxidative stress in aluminum trichloride (AlCl₃) and d-galactose (d-gal)-induced experimental sporadic dementia of Alzheimer's type.

Methods:

Valsartan was administered intragastrically (i.g.) (20 mg/kg/day) for 60 days after mice were given AlCl₃ (10 mg/kg/day) and d-gal (150 mg/kg/day) intraperitoneally (i.p.) once daily for 90 days. Then, memory function was evaluated by Morris water maze test. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE), superoxide dismutases (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities and malondialdehyde (MDA) level in cortex and hippocampus were also assessed with biochemical technique.

Results:

Chronic administration of valsartan not only improved learning and memory but also restored the elevation of AChE activity induced by AlCl₃ and d-gal in cortex and hippocampus. In addition, valsartan significantly restored SOD and GSH-Px activities and reduced MDA level in cortex and hippocampus indicating attenuation of oxidative stress.

Discussion:

Our results indicate that valsartan prevents AlCl₃- and d-gal-induced cognitive decline partly to restore cholinergic function and attenuate oxidative damage. These findings further support the potential of valsartan to be used in AD treatment.     

Central and peripheral administrations of levothyroxine improved memory performance and amplified brain electrical activity in the rat model of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is associated with cognitive impairments and a decline in the spontaneous neuronal discharge. In the current study, we evaluated the effect of subcutaneous (S.C.) and intrahippocampal (I.H.) administrations of levothyroxine (LT-4) on the passive avoidance and spatial memory, as well as electrophysiological activity in an animal model of AD. One hundred-sixty male Wistar rats were divided into two main groups. The S.C. group included two Sham and four AD (vehicle or L-T4 25, 50 & 100 μg/kg); and the I.H. had consisted of two Sham and two AD (vehicle or L-T4 10 μg/kg) subgroups. To make an animal model of AD, amyloid beta (Aβ) plus ibotenic acid (Ibo) were injected I.H. Rats were treated with L-T4 and/or normal saline for ten days. Passive avoidance and spatial memory were evaluated in shuttle box and Morris water maze, respectively. Neuronal single unit recording was assessed from hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG). Results showed that the mean latency time (s) increased significantly (p < 0.001) in AD animals and decreased significantly in both S.C. and I.H. L-T4 injected AD animals, compared with the AD group (p < 0.001). The percentage of total time that animals spent in goal quarter and the step through latency decreased significantly in AD rats (p < 0.001) and increased significantly in both S.C. and I.H. L-T4 injected AD animals in comparison with the AD group (p < 0.01, p < 0.001). Data showed that the average number of spikes/bin significantly decreased in the AD group (p < 0.001). The S.C. and I.H. L-T4 injections in AD rats significantly increased the spike rate in comparison to the AD group (p < 0.001).In conclusion, both S.C. and I.H. injections of L-T4 alleviated memory deficits and spontaneous neuronal activity in Aβ-induced AD rats. Also, I.H. microinjection of L-T4 had more beneficial effects on memory and neuronal electrophysiological activity in comparison to S.C. administration.     

香港远志提取物对拟阿尔茨海默病大鼠学习记忆的影响及机制

目的探讨香港远志提取物对拟阿尔茨海默病(AD)模型大鼠学习记忆能力的影响及机制。方法SD大鼠随机分4组:假手术组、模型组及治疗A、B组。双侧海马CA1区注射Aβ25～35建立拟AD大鼠模型,治疗组按设定方式给药,假手术组、模型组给1%吐温溶液。给药28d,Morris水迷宫方法测定大鼠学习记忆能力,定量分析海马区乙酰胆碱酯酶(AChE)、超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活力及丙二醛(MDA)含量。结果与假手术组比较,模型组大鼠的学习记忆能力、SOD活力显著降低,AchE活力、MDA含量显著增高(P<0.01)。与模型组比较,治疗组大鼠的学习记忆能力、SOD活力显著增高,AchE活力、MDA含量显著降低(P<0.05,或P<0.01)。结论香港远志乙酸乙酯提取物,可有效改善拟AD大鼠学习和记忆功能障碍,作用机制可能与降低AchE活力、调节胆碱能系统平衡;降低MDA含量、增强SOD活力,减少氧自由基产生,缓解氧化应激损伤有关。     

Neuropathological and behavioral sequelae in IL-1R1 and IL-1Ra gene knockout mice after soman (GD) exposure

Soman (GD) exposure results in status epilepticus (SE) that leads to neurodegeneration, neuroinflammation, and behavioral consequences including learning and memory deficits. The neuroinflammatory response is characterized by the upregulation of the pro-inflammatory cytokine, interleukin-1 (IL-1), which mediates the expression of other neurotoxic cytokines induced after GD exposure. However, the specific role of IL-1 signaling has not been defined in terms of the consequences of GD-induced SE. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to regulate IL-1 signaling and study the behavioral deficits and neurodegeneration that occur after convulsion onset. Wild type (WT), IL-1 receptor (IL-1R1) knockout (KO), and IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) KO mice were exposed to a convulsive dose of GD, and behavior was evaluated up to 18 days later. Activity was studied using the Open Field, anxiety was assessed in the Zero Maze, and spatial learning and memory were evaluated with the Barnes Maze. The animals were euthanized at 24 hours and 18 days to determine neuropathology in the piriform cortex, amygdala, thalamus, and CA1, CA2/3, and CA4 regions of the hippocampus. Unlike the IL-1Ra KO, the IL-1R1 KO showed less neuropathology compared to WT at 24 hours, but moderate to severe injury was found in all strains at 18 days. Compared to their saline controls, the exposed WT mice were significantly more active in the Open Field, and the IL-1R1 KO strain showed reduced anxiety in the Zero Maze Test. Compared to WT mice, IL-1R1 and IL-1Ra KO mice had spatial learning and memory impairments in the Barnes Maze. Therefore, the IL-1 signaling pathway affects neurodegeneration and behavior after GD-induced convulsions.     

Protective effect of betulin on cognitive decline in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats

Betulin is extracted from birch tree bark and exerts diverse pharmacological activities. The present study was designed to investigate the protective effect of betulin (BE) on cognitive decline in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. The diabetic model was built by streptozotocin (STZ) (30 mg/kg, ip). After 4 weeks, the diabetic rats were treated with vehicle or BE (20 mg/kg, 40 mg/kg) for 4 weeks. The oral glucose tolerance (OGTT) and serum insulin were detected. Three days later, Morris water maze (MWM) test was used to evaluate memory function. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and malondialdehyde (MDA) content in hippocampus were examined. Inflammatory cytokines including interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in serum and hippocampus were measured. The protein expressions of nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and NF-κB pathways-related molecules in hippocampus were examined. As a results, BE could improve glucose intolerance and modify basal learning performance. Treatment with BE significantly restored SOD activity and decreased MDA content in hippocampus. BE also markedly reduced the contents of inflammatory cytokines in serum and hippocampus. Furthermore, administration of BE effectively upregulated the expressions of Nrf2, HO-1 and blocked the phosphorylations of IκB, NF-κB. In summary, BE might exhibit protective effect on cognitive decline in STZ-induced diabetic rats through HO-1/Nrf-2/NF-κB pathway.     

Protective effects of tadalafil on experimental spinal cord injury in rats

Tadalafil is a selective inhibitor of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)-specific phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5). Nitric oxide (NO) functions as a retrograde neurotransmitter in the spinal cord, and postsynaptic structures respond to NO by producing cGMP. The concentrations of cGMP in the spinal cord are controlled by the actions of PDE. The aim of the study was to evaluate and compare the effects of the use of both methylprednisolone and tadalafil on serum and tissue concentrations of NO, malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, and tissue glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity in rats with spinal cord injury (SCI). SCI was induced in Wistar albino rats by dropping a 10 g rod from a 5.0 cm height at T8–10. The 28 rats were randomly divided into four equal groups: tadalafil, methylprednisolone, non-treatment and sham groups. Rats were neurologically tested at 24 hours after trauma. At the end of the experiment, blood samples were collected and spinal cord tissue samples were harvested for biochemical evaluation. The tissue level of NO was increased in the tadalafil group compared with the non-treatment and methylprednisolone groups (p < 0.05). The tissue levels of SOD and GSH-Px did not differ between the groups. Serum levels of NO were higher in the tadalafil group than in the non-treatment group (p < 0.05). The increase in serum SOD levels was greater in the tadalafil group than the methylprednisolone group. Serum MDA levels in the tadalafil and methylprednisolone groups tended to be lower than in the non-treatment group (p > 0.05). Tissue MDA levels in the tadalafil and methylprednisolone groups tended to be lower than in the non-treatment group and sham groups (p > 0.05). Although there was no difference in neurological outcome scores between the tadalafil, methylprednisolone and non-treatment groups (p > 0.05), the animals in the tadalafil and methylprednisolone groups tended to have better scores than the non-treatment group. Thus, tadalafil appears to be beneficial in reducing the effects of injury to the spinal cord by increasing tissue levels of NO and serum activity of SOD.     

Effects of an acute seizure on associative learning and memory

Past studies have demonstrated that inducing several seizures or continuous seizures in neonatal or adult rats results in impairments in learning and memory. The impact of a single acute seizure on learning and memory has not been investigated in mice. In this study, we exposed adult 129SvEvTac mice to the inhalant flurothyl until a behavioral seizure was induced. Our study consisted of 4 experiments where we examined the effect of one seizure before or after delay fear conditioning. We also included a separate cohort of animals that was tested in the open field after a seizure to rule out changes in locomotor activity influencing the results of memory tests. Mice that had experienced a single seizure 1 h, but not 6 h, prior to training showed a significant impairment in associative conditioning to the conditioned stimulus when compared with controls 24 h later. There were no differences in freezing one day later for animals that experienced a single seizure 1 h after associative learning. We also found that an acute seizure reduced activity levels in an open-field test 2 h but not 24 h later. These findings suggest that an acute seizure occurring immediately before learning can have an effect on the recall of events occurring shortly after that seizure. In contrast, an acute seizure occurring shortly after learning appears to have little or no effect on long-term memory. These findings have implications for understanding the acute effects of seizures on the acquisition of new knowledge.     

Behavioral disturbances in adult mice following neonatal virus infection or kynurenine treatment – Role of brain kynurenic acid

Exposure to infections in early life is considered a risk-factor for developing schizophrenia. Recently we reported that a neonatal CNS infection with influenza A virus in mice resulted in a transient induction of the brain kynurenine pathway, and subsequent behavioral disturbances in immune-deficient adult mice. The aim of the present study was to investigate a potential role in this regard of kynurenic acid (KYNA), an endogenous antagonist at the glycine site of the N-methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor and at the cholinergic α7 nicotinic receptor. C57BL/6 mice were injected i.p. with neurotropic influenza A/WSN/33 virus (2400 plaque-forming units) at postnatal day (P) 3 or with l-kynurenine (2 × 200 mg/kg/day) at P7–16. In mice neonatally treated with l-kynurenine prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle, anxiety, and learning and memory were also assessed. Neonatally infected mice showed enhanced sensitivity to d-amphetamine-induced (5 mg/kg i.p.) increase in locomotor activity as adults. Neonatally l-kynurenine treated mice showed enhanced sensitivity to d-amphetamine-induced (5 mg/kg i.p.) increase in locomotor activity as well as mild impairments in prepulse inhibition and memory. Also, d-amphetamine tended to potentiate dopamine release in the striatum in kynurenine-treated mice. These long-lasting behavioral and neurochemical alterations suggest that the kynurenine pathway can link early-life infection with the development of neuropsychiatric disturbances in adulthood.     

α-玉米赤霉醇对转APP基因小鼠的影响

目的研究α-玉米赤霉醇（-αZAL）对转APP基因构建的阿尔茨海默病（AD）小鼠模型的影响及其作用机制。方法采用转APP基因小鼠作为AD小鼠模型,-αZAL治疗组在小鼠9月龄后40d灌胃α-ZAL1.0mg/（kg.d）。Morris水迷宫实验观察-αZAL对AD小鼠认知功能的影响,测定血清和脑组织中谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶（GSH-PX）、超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）活性和丙二醇（MDA）的含量。结果 AD模型组空间学习和记忆能力下降,血清和脑组织GSH-PX、SOD活力下降,MDA含量增多（P均〈0.05）;-αZAL治疗组空间学习和记忆能力升高,血清和脑组织GSH-PX、SOD活力升高,MDA含量减少,与AD模型组比较有显著差异（P〈0.05）。结论 -αZAL可能通过抗氧化损伤保护机制来提高AD小鼠空间学习和记忆能力。     

Maternal immune activation differentially impacts mature and adult-born hippocampal neurons in male mice

Schizophrenia is associated with deficits in the hippocampus, a brain area important for learning and memory. The dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus develops both before and after birth. To study the relative contribution of mature and adult-born DG granule cells to disease etiology, we compared both cell populations in a mouse model of psychiatric illness resulting from maternal immune activation. Polyriboinosinic–polyribocytidilic acid (PolyIC, 5 mg/kg) or saline was given on gestation day 15 to pregnant female C57Bl/6 mice. Male offspring (n = 105), was administered systemic bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU, 50 mg/kg) (n = 52) or intracerebral retroviral injection into the DG (n = 53), to label dividing cells at one month of age. Two months later behavioral tests were performed to evaluate disease phenotype. Immunohistochemistry and whole-cell patch clamping were used to assess morphological and physiological characteristics of DG cells. Three-month-old PolyIC exposed male offspring exhibited deficient pre-pulse inhibition, spatial maze performance and motor coordination, as well as increased depression-like behavior. Histological analysis showed reduced DG volume and parvalbumin positive interneuron number. Both mature and new hippocampal neurons showed modifications in intrinsic properties such as increased input resistance and lower current threshold, and decreased action potential number. Reduced GABAergic inhibitory transmission was observed only in mature DG neurons. Differential impairments in mature DG cells and adult-born new neurons may have implications for behavioral deficits associated with maternal immune activation.     

Arginine vasopressin relates with spatial learning and memory in a mouse model of spinocerebellar ataxia type 3

Spinocerebellar ataxia is an inherited neurodegenerative disorder that the most prevalent type is type 3 (SCA3). Arginine vasopressin (AVP) is released within the lateral septum for controlling the learning and memory. This communication studied the effect of AVP on the spatial learning and memory of SCA3 mice. The spatial learning and memory were analyzed by Morris water maze test (MWM), and AVP concentration was measured by radioimmunoassay. The results showed that (Alves et al., 2010) the swimming velocity, distance traveled and latency to the platform of MWM in SCA3 mice were reduced slower than those in WT mice over 4 training days (p < 0.05, 0.01 or 0.001); (Antunes and Zimmerman, 1978) SCA3 mice showed a lower performance of spatial learning and memory of MWM during the fifth day (test day) compared to WT mice; (Bao et al., 2014) SCA3 mice had a decrease of AVP concentration in cerebral cortex (6.3 ± 0.6 pg/mg vs. 11.4 ± 1.0 pg/mg, p < 0.01), hypothalamus (6.1 ± 1.3 ng/mg vs. 10.3 ± 2.1 ng/mg, p < 0.05), hippocampus (3.2 ± 0.5 pg/mg vs. 5.2 ± 1.0 pg/mg, p < 0.01) and cerebellum (4.7 ± 0.9 pg/mg vs. 8.3 ± 1.1 pg/mg, p < 0.01), not in spinal cord, pituitary and serum; and (Barberies and Tribollet, 1996) intraventricular AVP could significantly quicken swimming velocity, cut down distance traveled and reduce latency to the platform of MWM in a dose-dependent manner, but intraventricular AVP receptor antagonist weakened the spatial learning and memory of MWM in SCA3 mice during the fifth day. The data suggested that AVP in the brain, not spinal cord and peripheral system of SCA3 mice related with the change of the spatial learning and memory of MWM.     

Effects of a lyophilized aqueous extract of Feretia apodanthera Del. (Rubiaceae) on pentylenetetrazole-induced kindling,oxidative stress,and cognitive impairment in mice

Feretia apodanthera Del. (Rubiaceae) is extensively used in ethnomedicine in Cameroon and Nigeria for epilepsy, febrile convulsions, and rheumatic pains and for enhancing cognitive performance. The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of a lyophilized aqueous extract of F. apodanthera on the course of kindling development, kindling-induced learning deficit, oxidative stress markers, and cholinesterase activity in pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-kindled mice. Pentylenetetrazole, 30 mg/kg, induced kindling in mice after 30.00 ± 1.67 days. The aqueous extract of F. apodanthera showed dose-dependent antiseizure effects. Feretia apodanthera (150–200 mg/kg) significantly increased the latency to myoclonic jerks, clonic seizures, and generalized tonic–clonic seizures. The extract also improved the seizure score and decreased the number of myoclonic jerks. Pentylenetetrazole kindling induced significant oxidative stress and cognitive impairment which were reversed by pretreatment with F. apodanthera in a dose-dependent manner. The significant decrease in cholinesterase activity observed in the PTZ-kindled mice was reversed by pretreatment with the F. apodanthera extract. The results indicated that pretreatment with the aqueous extract of F. apodanthera antagonizes seizures, oxidative stress, and cognitive impairment in PTZ-kindled mice. The aqueous extract of F. apodanthera also showed anxiolytic activities, but the inhibition of memory impairment was not attributed to the anxiolytic activities of the plant. These results thus suggest the potential of F. apodanthera as an adjuvant in epilepsy both to prevent seizures as well as to protect against seizure-induced oxidative stress and memory impairment.     

莪术提取物对单纯疱疹病毒性脑炎模型小鼠脑血流动力学及氧化应激的作用

目的 探讨莪术提取物对单纯疱疹病毒性脑炎(Herpes simplex encephalitis, HSE)模型小鼠脑血流动力学及氧化应激的影响及其可能作用机制。方法 选取48只C57BL/6雄性小鼠脑部注射Ⅰ型单纯疱疹病毒建立HSE小鼠模型,造模成功小鼠随机分为模型组、莪术提取物低、高剂量(50、100 mg/kg)组、西药组(150 mg/kg阿昔洛韦)各12只,另设对照组12只;实验期间记录小鼠一般情况和存活天数并计算生命延长率;酶联免疫吸附法(Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay, ELISA)检测小鼠血清丙二醛(Malondialdehyde, MDA)、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(Glutathione peroxidase, GSH-Px)、超氧化物岐化酶(Superoxide dismutase, SOD)水平;激光散斑成像系统检测小鼠脑血流变化;苏木精-伊红染色法(Hematoxylin eosin staining, HE)染色观察小鼠脑组织病理学变化;实时荧光定量聚合酶链反应法(Real time fluorescent quantitati...     

Pre-administration of curcumin prevents neonatal sevoflurane exposure-induced neurobehavioral abnormalities in mice

Sevoflurane, a commonly used inhaled anesthetic, can induce neuronal apoptosis in the developing rodent brain and correlate with functional neurological impairment later in life. However, the mechanisms underlying these deleterious effects of sevoflurane remain unclear and no effective treatment is currently available. Herein, the authors investigated whether curcumin can prevent the sevoflurane anesthesia-induced cognitive impairment in mice. Six-day-old C57BL/6 mice were exposed to 3% sevoflurane 2 h daily for 3 consecutive days and were treated with curcumin at the dose of 20 mg/kg or vehicle 30 min before the sevoflurane anesthesia from postnatal days 6 (P6) to P8. Cognitive functions were evaluated by open field, Morris water maze, and fear conditioning tests on P61, P63–69, and P77–78, respectively. In another separate experiment, mice were killed on day P8 or P78, and the brain tissues were harvested and then subjected to biochemistry studies. Our results showed that repeated neonatal sevoflurane exposure led to significant cognitive impairment later in life, which was associated with increased neuronal apoptosis, neuroinflammation, oxidative nitrosative stress, and decreased memory related proteins. By contrast, pre-administration of curcumin ameliorated early neuronal apoptosis, neuroinflammation, oxidative nitrosative stress, memory related proteins, and later cognitive dysfunction. In conclusion, our data suggested that curcumin pre-administration can prevent the sevoflurane exposure-induced cognitive impairment later in life, which may be partly attributed to its ability to attenuate the neural apoptosis, inflammation, and oxidative nitrosative stress in mouse brain.     

Distinguishing age-related cognitive decline from dementias: A study based on machine learning algorithms

Background and aimThis study aims to examine the distinguishability of age-related cognitive decline (ARCD) from dementias based on some neurocognitive tests using machine learning.Materials and methods106 subjects were divided into four groups: ARCD (n = 30), probable Alzheimer’s disease (AD) (n = 20), vascular dementia (VD) (n = 21) and amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI) (n = 35). The following tests were applied to all subjects: The Wechsler memory scale-revised, a clock-drawing, the dual similarities, interpretation of proverbs, word fluency, the Stroop, the Boston naming (BNT), the Benton face recognition, a copying-drawings and Öktem verbal memory processes (Ö-VMPT) tests. A multilayer perceptron, a support vector machine and a classification via regression with M5-model trees were employed for classification.ResultsThe pairwise classification results show that ARCD is completely separable from AD with a success rate of 100% and highly separable from MCI and VD with success rates of 95.4% and 86.30%, respectively. The neurocognitive tests with the higher merit values were Ö-VMPT recognition (ARCD vs. AD), Ö-VMPT total learning (ARCD vs. MCI) and semantic fluency, proverbs, Stroop interference and naming BNT (ARCD vs. VD).ConclusionThe findings show that machine learning can be successfully utilized for distinguishing ARCD from dementias based on neurocognitive tests.     

Electroacupuncture pretreatment prevents cognitive impairment induced by limb ischemia–reperfusion via inhibition of microglial activation and attenuation of oxidative stress in rats

Limb ischemia–reperfusion (LI/R) is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Furthermore, critical trauma survivors can present cognitive impairment. Cognitive function, survival rate, oxidative stress and neuronal health were examined to elucidate (1) the magnitude of cognitive effects of prolonged reperfusion, (2) potential players in the mechanistic pathway mediating such effects, and (3) possible benefits of electroacupuncture (EA) pretreatment at Baihui (GV20), Yanglingquan (GB34), Taichong (LR3), Zusanli (ST36) and Xuehai (SP10) acupoints. LI/R was induced in rats by placing a rubber tourniquet on each hind limb for 3 h, and the animals were evaluated periodically for 7 d after LI/R. Rats subjected to LI/R had significantly lower survival rates, and displayed evidence of brain injury and cognitive dysfunction (as determined by the Morris water maze test) 1 d and 3 d after reperfusion compared to sham-operated controls. LI/R also resulted in higher levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA), microglial activation, and decreased superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity within Cornu Ammonis area 1 (CA1) of the hippocampus. Depressed survival rates, microglial activation, oxidative damage, and histological changes, as well as cognitive dysfunction were partially or fully attenuated in rats that received 14 d of EA prior to LI/R. These findings indicate that LI/R can result in cognitive dysfunction related to activated microglia and elevated oxidative stress, and that EA has neuroprotective potential mediated, at least in part, by inhibition of microglial activation and attenuation of oxidative stress.     

Relationship between executive functions and motor stereotypies in children with Autistic Disorder

This study reports on the relationship between motor stereotypies and impairments in executive functions (EF) in children with Autistic Disorder (AD) and in children with Developmental Language Disorders (DLD). We hypothesized that low EF performance would predict higher frequency and longer durations of stereotypies in the AD group only. Twenty-two children (age range = 7–9 years, 6 months, girls = 5) with AD were recruited from a longitudinal multi-site study and compared to twenty-two non-autistic children with DLD (age range = 7–9 years, 6 months, girls = 5). The two groups were matched on non-verbal IQ and demographic characteristics. Frequency and duration of stereotypies were coded from videotaped semi-structured play sessions. EF measures included the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) Categories, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) Mazes, and Stanford-Binet Fourth Edition (SB-IV) Matrices. The scores for frequency and duration of stereotypies were higher in the AD group. Separate linear regressions revealed that group status, EF, and their interactions predict stereotypies. Specifically, lower EF scores predicted higher frequencies and longer durations of stereotypies in the AD group only. Analyses controlled for age, gender, and parent education. Findings suggest that in AD, EF impairments and stereotypies may be linked to shared brain pathways.