Fingertip Whole Blood as an Indicator of Omega-3 Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Changes during Dose-Response Supplementation in Women: Comparison with Plasma and Erythrocyte Fatty Acids

The sensitivity of fingertip whole blood to reflect habitual dietary and dose-dependent supplemental omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 LCPUFA) intake in premenopausal women was compared to that of venous erythrocytes and plasma fatty acids. Samples were obtained from women in a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in which premenopausal women (n = 53) were supplemented with DHA-rich tuna oil capsules and/or placebo (Sunola oil) capsules (6 capsules per day) for 8 weeks to achieve doses of either 0, 0.35, 0.7 or 1.05 g/day n-3 LCPUFA. All blood biomarkers were very similar in their ability to reflect dietary n-3 LCPUFA intake (r = 0.38–0.46 for EPA and DHA intake), and in their dose-dependent increases in n-3 LCPUFA levels after supplementation (R² = 0.41–0.51 for dose effect on biomarker EPA and DHA levels (mol %)). Fingertip whole blood is an effective alternative to erythrocytes and plasma as a biomarker n-3 LCPUFA intake in premenopausal women.     

Investigation of Maternal Diet and FADS1 Polymorphism Associated with Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Compositions in Human Milk

Increasing the amount of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) in human milk is an important strategy for infant growth and development. We investigated the associations of LCPUFA compositions in human milk with maternal diet (especially fish and shellfish intake), with fatty acid Δ5 desaturase gene (FADS1) polymorphisms, and with gene-diet interactions. The present study was performed as part of an adjunct study of the Japan Environment and Children’s Study. The participants were 304 lactating females, who provided human milk 6–7 months after delivery. Fatty acids in human milk were analyzed by gas chromatography, and dietary surveys were conducted using a brief self-administered diet history questionnaire. We also analyzed a single nucleotide polymorphism of FADS1 (rs174547, T/C). There was a significant difference in arachidonic acid (ARA) composition in human milk among the genotype groups, and the values were decreasing in the order of TT > TC > CC. The concentrations of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) were also different between TT and CC genotype, indicating a tendency for decreasing values in the same order. The composition of ARA showed significant gene–dietary interactions in multiple regression analysis, and the positive correlation between fish and shellfish intake and ARA composition in human milk was significant only in the CC genotype. Moreover, the factor most strongly associated with EPA and DHA composition in human milk was fish and shellfish intake. Therefore, it was suggested that increasing fish and shellfish intake in mothers may increase EPA and DHA composition in human milk, while increasing fish and shellfish intake in CC genotype mothers may lead to increased ARA composition in human milk.     

No effect of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (EPA and DHA) supplementation on depressed mood and cognitive function: a randomised controlled trial

Low dietary intakes of the n-3 long-chain PUFA (LCPUFA) EPA and DHA are thought to be associated with increased risk for a variety of adverse outcomes, including some psychiatric disorders. Evidence from observational and intervention studies for a role of n-3 LCPUFA in depression is mixed, with some support for a benefit of EPA and/or DHA in major depressive illness. The present study was a double-blind randomised controlled trial that evaluated the effects of EPA+DHA supplementation (1.5 g/d) on mood and cognitive function in mild to moderately depressed individuals. Of 218 participants who entered the trial, 190 completed the planned 12 weeks intervention. Compliance, confirmed by plasma fatty acid concentrations, was good, but there was no evidence of a difference between supplemented and placebo groups in the primary outcome - namely, the depression subscale of the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales at 12 weeks. Mean depression score was 8.4 for the EPA+DHA group and 9.6 for the placebo group, with an adjusted difference of - 1.0 (95 % CI - 2.8, 0.8; P = 0.27). Other measures of mood, mental health and cognitive function, including Beck Depression Inventory score and attentional bias toward threat words, were similarly little affected by the intervention. In conclusion, substantially increasing EPA+DHA intake for 3 months was found not to have beneficial or harmful effects on mood in mild to moderate depression. Adding the present result to a meta-analysis of previous relevant randomised controlled trial results confirmed an overall negligible benefit of n-3 LCPUFA supplementation for depressed mood.     

The Feasibility of the “Omega Kid” Study Protocol: A Double-Blind,Randomised, Placebo-Controlled Trial Investigating the Effect of Omega-3 Supplementation on Self-Regulation in Preschool-Aged Children

Self-regulation, the regulation of behaviour in early childhood, impacts children’s success at school and is a predictor of health, wealth, and criminal outcomes in adulthood. Self-regulation may be optimised by dietary supplementation of omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LCPUFAs). The aim of the “Omega Kid” study is to investigate the feasibility of a protocol to investigate whether n-3 LCPUFA supplementation enhances self-regulation in preschool-aged children. The protocol assessed involved a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial of 12 weeks duration, with an intervention of 1.6 g of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) per day (0.3 g EPA and 1.3 g DHA) in a microencapsulated powder compared to placebo. Children (n = 78; 40 boys and 38 girls) aged 3–5 years old were recruited and randomly allocated to the treatment (n = 39) or placebo group (n = 39). The HS–Omega-3 Index^® served as a manipulation check on the delivery of either active (n-3 LCPUFAs) or placebo powders. Fifty-eight children (76%) completed the intervention (28–30 per group). Compliance to the study protocol was high, with 92% of children providing a finger-prick blood sample at baseline and high reported-adherence to the study intervention (88%). Results indicate that the protocol is feasible and may be employed in an adequately powered clinical trial to test the hypothesis that n-3 LCPUFA supplementation will improve the self-regulation of preschool-aged children.     

An Evaluation of Omega-3 Status and Intake in Canadian Elite Rugby 7s Players

Background: EPA and DHA n-3 FA play crucial roles in both neurological and cardiovascular health and high dietary intakes along with supplementation suggest potential neuroprotection and concussion recovery support. Rugby athletes have a high risk of repetitive sub-concussive head impacts which may lead to long-term neurological deficits, but there is a lack of research looking into n-3 FA status in rugby players. We examined the dietary n-3 FA intake through a FFQ and n-3 FA status by measuring the percentage of n-3 FA and O3I in elite Canadian Rugby 7s players to show distribution across O3I risk zones; high risk, <4%; intermediate risk, 4 to 8%; and low risk, >8%. Methods: n-3 FA profile and dietary intake as per FFQ were collected at the beginning of the 2017–2018 Rugby 7s season in male (n = 19; 24.84 ± 2.32 years; 95.23 ± 6.93 kg) and female (n = 15; 23.45 ± 3.10 years; 71.21 ± 5.79 kg) athletes. Results: O3I averaged 4.54% ± 1.77, with female athlete scores slightly higher, and higher O3I scores in supplemented athletes (4.82% vs. 3.94%, p = 0.183), with a greater proportion of non-supplemented athletes in the high-risk category (45.5% vs. 39.1%). Dietary intake in non-supplemented athletes did not meet daily dietary recommendations for ALA or EPA + DHA compared to supplemented athletes. Conclusions: Overall, despite supplementation, O3I score remained in the high-risk category in a proportion of athletes who met recommended n-3 FA dietary intakes, and non-supplemented athletes had a higher proportion of O3I scores in the high-risk category, suggesting that dietary intake alone may not be enough and athletes may require additional dietary and n-3 FA supplementation to reduce neurological and cardiovascular risk.     

Docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid affect ovarian prostaglandin levels differently in rats

Prostaglandins (PGs) play a key role in the regulation of ovulation. Typically, ingestion of the long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) has been found to decrease, whereas arachidonic acid (ARA) increases PG biosynthesis in most systems. We hypothesized that DHA and EPA would decrease ovarian PGE₂, enhancing ovulation, with combined EPA and DHA having the greatest effect, whereas ARA would increase PGE₂, suppressing ovulation. Our objective was to determine how 0.3-g/100-g diet DHA and EPA alone or combined, or ARA would affect tissue composition, ovulation, and PG synthesis in rats. After 27 days on diet and ovulation induction, ovaries were isolated and analyzed from 22 pups per diet. Eicosapentaenoic acid alone reduced ovarian n-6 PUFA attributable to reduced ARA incorporation. Arachidonic acid ingestion reduced and EPA enhanced ovarian n-3 PUFA to levels above what was seen with DHA or DHA/EPA combinations. Docosahexaenoic acid alone increased total PGE 1.5-fold over control, whereas neither differed from the remaining treatments. Increased total PGE with DHA was attributable to elevated PGE₃ with PGE₂ unchanged by diet, and PGE₃ only increased with DHA ingestion alone. Total PGF differed from control with the highest DHA intake, alone or combined with EPA, or with ARA ingestion (P < .05). Increased PGF with DHA was attributable to increased PGF_3α. Experimental diets did not alter ovulation from control. Results indicate that DHA and EPA consumption at human achievable doses differently alters ovarian phospholipids and PGs associated with ovulation with potential for significant 3-series PG without significantly perturbing ovulation.     

Do Eicosapentaenoic Acid and Docosahexaenoic Acid Have the Potential to Compete against Each Other?

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) consumed in low abundance in the Western diet. Increased consumption of n-3 PUFAs may have beneficial effects for a wide range of physiological outcomes including chronic inflammation. However, considerable mechanistic gaps in knowledge exist about EPA versus DHA, which are often studied as a mixture. We suggest the novel hypothesis that EPA and DHA may compete against each other through overlapping mechanisms. First, EPA and DHA may compete for residency in membrane phospholipids and thereby differentially displace n-6 PUFAs, which are highly prevalent in the Western diet. This would influence biosynthesis of downstream metabolites of inflammation initiation and resolution. Second, EPA and DHA exert different effects on plasma membrane biophysical structure, creating an additional layer of competition between the fatty acids in controlling signaling. Third, DHA regulates membrane EPA levels by lowering its rate of conversion to EPA’s elongation product n-3 docosapentaenoic acid. Collectively, we propose the critical need to investigate molecular competition between EPA and DHA in health and disease, which would ultimately impact dietary recommendations and precision nutrition trials.     

Efficacy and safety of docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid addition to infant formulas: can one buy better vision and intelligence?

Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) namely arachidonic acid (ARA, 20:4n-6) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) are highly concentrated in the phospholipid bilayer of biologically active brain and retinal neural membranes and are important in phototransduction and neuronal function. The rationale for adding these LCPUFA to infant formula (IF) was primarily because of their presence in large quantities in the retina and brain and in human milk. In addition, infants fed IF containing LCPUFA and breastfed infants have comparable ARA and DHA levels in red cell and plasma, in contrast to the lower ARA and DHA levels in those fed IF containing only the essential fatty acids: linoleic (LA, 18:2n-6) and linolenic (LNA, 18:3n-3), the precursors to ARA and DHA, respectively. However, functional benefits in particular visual or neural development from IF containing LCPUFA remains controversial. Potential for excessive and/or imbalanced intake of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids exists with increasing fortification of LCPUFA to infant foods other than IF.     

Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in inborn errors of metabolism

The treatment of children with inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) is mainly based on restricted dietary intake of protein-containing foods. However, dietary protein restriction may not only reduce amino acid intake, but may be associated with low intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids as well. This review focuses on the consequences of dietary restriction in IEM on the bioavailability of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) and on the attempts to ameliorate these consequences. We were able to identify during a literature search 10 observational studies investigating LCPUFA status in patients with IEM and six randomized controlled trials (RCTs) reporting effect of LCPUFA supplementation to the diet of children with IEM. Decreased LCPUFA status, in particular decreased docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) status, has been found in patients suffering from IEM based on the evidence of observational studies. LCPUFA supplementation effectively improves DHA status without detectable adverse reactions. Further research should focus on functional outcomes of LCPUFA supplementation in children with IEM.     

Long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid dietary recommendations are moderately efficient in optimizing their status in healthy middle-aged subjects with low fish consumption: a cross-over study

Several dietary recommendations have been made for marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) intake; however, the effectiveness of these fatty acids has not been thoroughly examined. The aim of this study was to investigate whether public-aimed dietary recommendations for long-chain n-3 PUFA from oily fish or fish oil supplements are efficient in optimizing their status in red blood cells (RBCs) and platelets of healthy middle-aged subjects with low customary fish consumption. In a randomized, cross-over trial conducted over an 8-week period and separated by a 6-month washout period, 33 participants received an oily fish (salmon), providing 274 mg eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) + 671 mg docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) per day, or a commercial fish oil supplement, providing 396 mg EPA + 250 mg DHA per day. Blood samples were collected before and after each intervention period, and RBCs and platelets were used for analysis of fatty acids. After 8 weeks, there were significant increases in EPA and DHA content in RBCs and platelets with both salmon and fish oil capsules. The increase in EPA in both RBCs and platelets was higher with capsules, whereas the increase in DHA in both RBCs and platelets was higher with salmon. In spite of the quantitative and qualitative differences between n-3 fatty acid profiles in salmon and the fish oil supplement, the overall incorporation of these fatty acids into RBCs and platelets did not differ in our short-term study (P > .05). The sum of EPA + DHA significantly increased in both compartments following dietary recommendations for oily fish and fish oil supplements intake in middle-aged healthy subjects with low baseline long-chain n-3 PUFA status, although targeted values with optimal cardioprotective effect of more than 8% were not achieved.     

Total Fat and Fatty Acid Intake among 1–7-Year-Old Children from 33 Countries: Comparison with International Recommendations

This work reviews available data on dietary intakes of total fat, saturated fatty acids (SFA) and individual polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in children in different countries worldwide and for the first time, compares them with recent international recommendations. Studies published before June 2021 reporting total fat, total SFA and individual PUFA intakes in children aged 1–7 y were included. Observed intakes were evaluated against FAO/WHO and EFSA recommendations. 65 studies from 33 countries were included. Fat intake was too low in 88% of studies in young children (1–3 y). SFA intake was >10%E in 69–73% of children, especially in Europe. Linoleic acid intake was <3%E in 24% of studies in 1–2 y olds and within FAO/WHO recommendations among all other ages. Alpha-linolenic acid intake was <0.5%E in almost half of studies. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) or eicosapentaenoic acid + DHA intakes were below recommendations in most studies. In summary, while total fat intake was too low among younger children, SFA intake was above, especially in Europe and n-3 PUFA intake, especially DHA, were below recommendations for all ages. Intake of n-3 PUFA, especially DHA, is generally suboptimal. More data, particularly from developing countries, are required to refine these findings and guide implementation of adapted nutrition policies.     

Genetic variants of the FADS1 FADS2 gene cluster are associated with altered (n-6) and (n-3) essential fatty acids in plasma and erythrocyte phospholipids in women during pregnancy and in breast milk during lactation

The enzymes encoded by fatty acid desaturase (FADS) 1 and FADS2 are rate-limiting enzymes in the desaturation of linoleic acid [LA; 18:2(n-6)] to arachidonic acid [ARA; 20:4(n-6)], and alpha-linolenic acid [ALA; 18:3(n-3)] to eicosapentaenoic acid [EPA; 20:5(n-3)] and docosahexaenoic acid [DHA; 22:6(n-3)]. ARA, EPA, and DHA play central roles in infant growth, neural development, and immune function. The maternal ARA, EPA, and DHA status in gestation influences maternal-to-infant transfer and breast milk provides fatty acids for infants after birth. We determined if single nucleotide polymorphisms in FADS1 and FADS2 influence plasma phospholipid and erythrocyte ethanolamine phosphoglyceride (EPG) (n-6) and (n-3) fatty acids of women in pregnancy or their breast milk during lactation. We genotyped rs174553, rs99780, rs174575, and rs174583 in the FADS1 FADS2 gene cluster and analyzed plasma and erythrocyte fatty acids and dietary intake for 69 pregnant women and breast milk for a subset of 54 women exclusively breast-feeding at 1 mo postpartum. Minor allele homozygotes of rs174553(GG), rs99780(TT), and rs174583(TT) had lower ARA but higher LA in plasma phospholipids and erythrocyte EPG and decreased (n-6) and (n-3) fatty acid product:precursor ratios at 16 and 36 wk of gestation. Breast milk fatty acids were influenced by genotype, with significantly lower 14:0, ARA, and EPA but higher 20:2(n-6) in the minor allele homozygotes of rs174553(GG), rs99780(TT), and rs174583(TT) and lower ARA, EPA, 22:5(n-3), and DHA in the minor allele homozygotes G/G of rs174575. We showed that genetic variants of FADS1 and FADS2 influence blood lipid and breast milk essential fatty acids in pregnancy and lactation.     

Effect of 6 Weeks of n-3 fatty-acid supplementation on oxidative stress in Judo athletes

The aim of this investigation was to assess the effects of 6 wk of eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) and docosahexanoic acid (DHA) supplementation on resting and exercise-induced lipid peroxidation and antioxidant status in judoists. Subjects were randomly assigned to receive a placebo or a capsule of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs; 600 mg EPA and 400 mg DHA). Blood samples were collected in preexercise and postexercise conditions (judo-training session), both before and after the supplementation period. The following parameters were analyzed: α-tocopherol, retinol, lag phase , maximum rate of oxidation (Rmax) during the propagating chain reaction, maximum amount of conjugated dienes (CDmax) accumulated after the propagation phase, nitric oxide (NO) and malondyaldehide (MDA) concentrations, salivary glutathione peroxidase activity, and the lipid profile. Dietary data were collected using a 7-day dietary record. A significant interaction effect between supplementation and time (p < .01) on triglycerides was noted, with values significantly lower in the n-3 long-chain-PUFA (LCPUFA) group after supplementation than in the placebo group. Significant interaction effects between supplementation and time on resting MDA concentrations and Rmax were found (p = .03 and p = .04, respectively), with elevated values in the n-3 LCPUFA group after supplementation and no change in the placebo group's levels. The authors observed a significantly greater NO and oxidative-stress increase with exercise (MDA, Rmax, CDmax, and NO) in the n-3 LCPUFA group than with placebo. No main or interaction effects were found for retinol and α-tocopherol. These results indicate that supplementation with n-3 LCPUFAs significantly increased oxidative stress at rest and after a judo-training session.     

Importance of EPA and DHA Blood Levels in Brain Structure and Function

Brain structure and function depend on a constant and sufficient supply with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) by blood. Blood levels of EPA and DHA reflect dietary intake and other variables and are preferably assessed as percentage in erythrocytes with a well-documented and standardized analytical method (HS-Omega-3 Index^®). Every human being has an Omega-3 Index between 2 and 20%, with an optimum of 8–11%. Compared to an optimal Omega-3 Index, a lower Omega-3 Index was associated with increased risk for total mortality and ischemic stroke, reduced brain volume, impaired cognition, accelerated progression to dementia, psychiatric diseases, compromises of complex brain functions, and other brain issues in epidemiologic studies. Most intervention trials, and their meta-analyses considered EPA and DHA as drugs with good bioavailability, a design tending to produce meaningful results in populations characterized by low baseline blood levels (e.g., in major depression), but otherwise responsible for many neutral results and substantial confusion. When trial results were evaluated using blood levels of EPA and DHA measured, effects were larger than comparing EPA and DHA to placebo groups, and paralleled epidemiologic findings. This indicates future trial design, and suggests a targeted use EPA and DHA, based on the Omega-3 Index.     

Fatty acid profiles of livers from selected marine fish species

Fish livers (FLs) constitute a rich and underexploited source of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs). Unfortunately, FLs are usually discarded when fish are processed in industrial factories for human consumption, thus the nutritional possibilities of LCPUFAs of FLs is wasted. Nevertheless, these organs might be used as a cheaper source of LCPUFAs, such as eicosapentaenoic (EPA, 20:5n-3), docosahexaenoic (DHA, 22:6n-3) and arachidonic acids (AA, 20:4n-6). In the present work, the FA profiles of FLs of 12 fish species commonly consumed in southern Spain have been determined. The output of the analyses showed that the total FA in FLs ranged between 10.8% in European anchovy to 70.0% in great weaver. FLs from shortfin mako yielded the most unsaturated oil, showing also the higher amount of LCPUFAs (51.4%) and n-3 LCPUFAs (46.3%). FLs from great weever and European anchovy were characterized by a high LCPUFA content. All species show a good n-3/n-6 ratio, with blue whiting (10.2) at the top of the range. Saturated FAs (SFAs) reached the highest amounts in European pilchard (35.8%) and axillary seabream (35.5%), while Mediterranean hake showed the higher amounts of monounsaturated FAs (MUFAs) (50.2%), although LCPUFA content was also noticeable in this species. A remarkable characteristic of FLs confirmed in this work is that this organ constitutes a rich source of n-3 LCPUFA, especially of EPA and DHA.     

Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (LCPUFAs) and the Developing Immune System: A Narrative Review

The immune system is complex: it involves many cell types and numerous chemical mediators. An immature immune response increases susceptibility to infection, whilst imbalances amongst immune components leading to loss of tolerance can result in immune-mediated diseases including food allergies. Babies are born with an immature immune response. The immune system develops in early life and breast feeding promotes immune maturation and protects against infections and may protect against allergies. The long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) arachidonic acid (AA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are considered to be important components of breast milk. AA, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and DHA are also present in the membranes of cells of the immune system and act through multiple interacting mechanisms to influence immune function. The effects of AA and of mediators derived from AA are often different from the effects of the n-3 LCPUFAs (i.e., EPA and DHA) and of mediators derived from them. Studies of supplemental n-3 LCPUFAs in pregnant women show some effects on cord blood immune cells and their responses. These studies also demonstrate reduced sensitisation of infants to egg, reduced risk and severity of atopic dermatitis in the first year of life, and reduced persistent wheeze and asthma at ages 3 to 5 years, especially in children of mothers with low habitual intake of n-3 LCPUFAs. Immune markers in preterm and term infants fed formula with AA and DHA were similar to those in infants fed human milk, whereas those in infants fed formula without LCPUFAs were not. Infants who received formula plus LCPUFAs (both AA and DHA) showed a reduced risk of allergic disease and respiratory illness than infants who received standard formula. Studies in which infants received n-3 LCPUFAs report immune differences from controls that suggest better immune maturation and they show lower risk of allergic disease and respiratory illness over the first years of life. Taken together, these findings suggest that LCPUFAs play a role in immune development that is of clinical significance, particularly with regard to allergic sensitisation and allergic manifestations including wheeze and asthma.     

The Pattern of Fatty Acids Displaced by EPA and DHA Following 12 Months Supplementation Varies between Blood Cell and Plasma Fractions

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are increased in plasma lipids and blood cell membranes in response to supplementation. Whilst arachidonic acid (AA) is correspondingly decreased, the effect on other fatty acids (FA) is less well described and there may be site-specific differences. In response to 12 months EPA + DHA supplementation in doses equivalent to 0–4 portions of oily fish/week (1 portion: 3.27 g EPA+DHA) multinomial regression analysis was used to identify important FA changes for plasma phosphatidylcholine (PC), cholesteryl ester (CE) and triglyceride (TAG) and for blood mononuclear cells (MNC), red blood cells (RBC) and platelets (PLAT). Dose-dependent increases in EPA + DHA were matched by decreases in several n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in PC, CE, RBC and PLAT, but were predominantly compensated for by oleic acid in TAG. Changes were observed for all FA classes in MNC. Consequently the n-6:n-3 PUFA ratio was reduced in a dose-dependent manner in all pools after 12 months (37%–64% of placebo in the four portions group). We conclude that the profile of the FA decreased in exchange for the increase in EPA + DHA following supplementation differs by FA pool with implications for understanding the impact of n-3 PUFA on blood lipid and blood cell biology.     

Assessing the environment for regulatory change for eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid nutrition labeling

This review examines issues related to the development of a recommended daily allowance or adequate intake, two of the categories of dietary reference intakes, for the long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega-3 PUFAs), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5 n-3), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3). Although some have suggested a dietary intake of two servings of fatty fish per week or supplement intake of 500 mg/day EPA plus DHA, based on evidence from epidemiologic and clinical studies of cardiovascular benefit from regular fish or fish-oil consumption, supplementation with EPA and/or DHA may also have antidepressant and mood-stabilizing effects. Omega-3 PUFA biology is complex and chronic disease outcomes are sometimes difficult to prove, yet the possibility of benefit for a substantial portion of the population from increased omega-3 PUFA intake is a public health issue that must be addressed responsibly and be based on significant scientific evidence.     

ω-3 Fatty Acids in the Prevention of Cognitive Decline in Humans

The brain is a lipid-rich organ where docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is enriched and where eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) may have anti-inflammatory effects. The potential role for n–3 (ω-3) fatty acids such as DHA and EPA in the prevention of cognitive decline, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has attracted major interest for the past 20 y. This review presents our understanding of recent observational, interventional, and experimental studies, with the aim of providing some answers to the following question: Can n–3 FA intake modulate cognitive function during aging? In longitudinal observation studies we mainly observe inverse relations between fish intake or serum concentrations of DHA and cognitive impairment. Intervention studies of EPA and DHA supplementation in healthy old individuals have been negative so far (i.e., after up to 2 years of treatment, no differences in cognitive decline between treated and nontreated participants have been observed). In studies that provided EPA and DHA to adults with mild cognitive impairment or age-related cognitive impairment the data seem to be positive. However, when patients with established AD were supplemented with EPA and DHA it appears no benefit was gained. For studies on healthy individuals, a major concern is that the treatment periods may have been too short. There might also be subgroup effects because of the carriage of apolipoprotein Eε4 alleles or risk factor burden. Experimental studies appear to be consistently positive (i.e., n–3 FA supplementation in rodents over a substantial portion of their lives reduces amyloid-β deposition and hippocampal neuron loss and improves cognitive functioning). We are getting closer to providing evidence-based recommendations on fish and fish oil intake to facilitate memory function during old age. In the meantime it is advised to follow the general CDC dietary recommendations of 2–3 fish meals per week or the equivalent intake of long chain n–3 fatty acids, particularly DHA.