Dual role of Response gene to complement-32 in multiple sclerosis

Response gene to complement (RGC)-32 is a novel molecule that plays an important role in cell proliferation. We investigated the expression of RGC-32 in multiple sclerosis (MS) brain and in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) obtained from patients with relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis. We found that CD3⁺, CD68⁺, and glial fibrillar acidic protein (GFAP)⁺ cells in MS plaques co-localized with RGC-32. Our results show a statistically significant decrease in RGC-32 mRNA expression in PBMCs during relapses when compared to the levels in stable MS patients. This decrease might be useful in predicting disease activity in patients with relapsing–remitting MS. RGC-32 expression was also correlated with that of FasL mRNA during relapses. FasL mRNA expression was significantly reduced after RGC-32 silencing, indicating a role for RGC-32 in the regulation of FasL expression. In addition, the expression of Akt1, cyclin D1, and IL-21 mRNA was significantly increased during MS relapses when compared to levels in healthy controls. Furthermore, we investigated the role of RGC-32 in TGF-β-induced extracellular matrix expression in astrocytes. Blockage of RGC-32 using small interfering RNA significantly inhibits TGF-β induction of procollagen I, fibronectin and of the reactive astrocyte marker α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA). Our data suggest that RGC-32 plays a dual role in MS, both as a regulator of T-cells mediated apoptosis and as a promoter of TGF-β-mediated profibrotic effects in astrocytes.     

MicroRNA-30d/JAG1 axis modulates pulmonary fibrosis through Notch signaling pathway

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a fibroproliferative disease which can finally end up fatal lung failure. PF is characterized by abnormal proliferation of fibroblast, dysregulated fibroblast differentiation to myofibroblast and disorganized collagen and extracellular matrix (ECM) production, deposition and degradation. JAG1/Notch signaling has been reported to play a key role in tissue fibrosis including PF. Herein, we confirmed the abnormal upregulation of JAG1 mRNA expression and protein levels in PF tissue specimens; JAG1 knockdown reduced TGF-β1-induced α-SMA and Collagen I protein levels. From the aspect of miRNA regulation, we searched for candidate miRNAs which might target JAG1 to inhibit its expression. Among the selected miRNAs, miR-30d expression was downregulated in PF tissues; miR-30d overexpression attenuated TGF-β1-induced primary normal human lung fibroblast (NHLF) proliferation, as well as α-SMA and Collagen I protein levels. Through directly binding to the 3′-UTR of JAG1, miR-30d significantly inhibited JAG1 mRNA expression and protein level. Furthermore, JAG1 overexpression partially reversed the effect of miR-30d on NHLF proliferation and α-SMA and Collagen I proteins upon TGF-β1 stimulation; miR-30d could suppress TGF-β1 function on NHLFs through blocking JAG1/Notch signaling. Rescuing miR-30d expression to suppress TGF-β1-induced activation of JAG1/Notch signaling may present a promising strategy for PF treatment.     

Involvement of endoplasmic reticulum stress in myofibroblastic differentiation of lung fibroblasts

Stress that impairs endoplasmic reticulum (ER) function leads to an accumulation of unfolded or misfolded proteins in the ER (ER stress) and triggers the unfolded protein response (UPR). Recent studies suggest that ER stress is involved in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). The present study was undertaken to determine the role of ER stress on myofibroblastic differentiation of fibroblasts. Fibroblasts in fibroblastic foci of IPF showed immunoreactivity for GRP78. To determine the role of ER stress on α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and collagen type I expression in fibroblasts, mouse and human lung fibroblasts were treated with TGF-β1, and expression of ER stress-related proteins, α-SMA, and collagen type I was analyzed by Western blotting. TGF-β1 significantly increased expression of GRP78, XBP-1, and ATF6α, which was accompanied by increases in α-SMA and collagen type I expression in mouse and human fibroblasts. A chemical chaperone, 4-PBA, suppressed TGF-β1-induced UPR and α-SMA and collagen type I induction. We also showed that TGF-β1-induced UPR was mediated through the reactive oxygen species generation. Our study provides the first evidence implicating the UPR in myofibroblastic differentiation during fibrosis. These findings of the role of ER stress and chemical chaperones in pulmonary fibrosis may improve our understanding of the pathogenesis of IPF.     

Erythropoietin improves skin wound healing and activates the TGF-β signaling pathway

We could recently report that erythropoietin (EPO) accelerates skin wound healing in mice. Now, we provide insight into the molecular mechanisms of this non-hematopoietic property of EPO analyzing the transforming growth factor (TGF)-β signaling pathway. EPO receptor was found expressed in both non-wounded and wounded skin tissue as well as in fibroblasts and keratinocytes. In saline-treated control animals, wounds exhibited a significant upregulation of TGF-β1 and of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) compared with non-wounded skin. EPO treatment accelerated wound epithelialization and induced mRNA expression of TGF-β1 and α-SMA. In addition, EPO significantly enhanced phosphorylation of Smad2 and Smad3 in fibroblasts and also elevated phosphorylation of Smad3 in wound tissue. Blockade of TGF-β using a neutralizing anti-TGF-β antibody attenuated EPO-induced acceleration of wound epithelialization in vivo and markedly reversed EPO effects on mRNA expression of TGF-β1 and α-SMA. In conclusion, EPO caused activation of the Smad-dependent TGF-β signaling pathway, enhanced differentiation of myofibroblasts, and accelerated skin wound closure.     

结缔组织生长因子在转化生长因子β诱导的肾小管上皮细胞转分化中的作用

目的：探讨结缔组织生长因子（CTGF）在转化生长因子-β1（TGF-β1）诱导的肾小管上皮细胞表型转化中的可能作用。方法： 将NRK52E肾小管上皮细胞分组处理，光镜、扫描电镜、透射电镜观察细胞形态的改变，细胞免疫组化检测ɑ-平滑肌肌动蛋白（α-SMA）和细胞角蛋白-18的表达，RT-PCR和Western blot检测Ⅰ型胶原的表达。 结果：TGF-β1 10 μg/L作用3 d，NRK52E小管上皮细胞失去正常的椭圆形，变得肥大，胞体拉长，扫描电镜下，见成纤维细胞状，失去上皮细胞特有的顶端-基底极性和表面的微绒毛结构，透射电镜下胞浆中见到微丝和致密体结构，骨架标志上肾小管上皮细胞较具特征性的细胞角蛋白-18表达减少,肌成纤维细胞标志性的α-SMA表达增多，Ⅰ型胶原分泌增多；加入TGF-β1中和抗体和CTGF反义寡核苷酸可以大部分阻断TGF-β的作用，而正义的CTGF寡核苷酸不能阻断TGF-β的作用。 结论： NRK52E细胞中，CTGF作为TGF-β的下游效应因子，介导了TGF-β诱导的肾小管上皮细胞转分化。     

Fibronectin regulates proteoglycan production balance in transforming growth factor-β1-induced chondrogenesis

Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) induce a cartilage-specific extracellular matrix (ECM) gene, aggrecan, in a chondrogenic cell line, ATDC5. The results of our recent study show that TGF-β1, but not BMP-4, strongly induces an ECM gene, fibronectin, during chondrogenesis. However, the role of fibronectin in chondrogenesis is unclear. In the current study, our results showed that TGF-β1, but not BMP-4, led to versican-dominant proteoglycan production during chondrogenesis of ATDC5 cells. siRNA-mediated reduction of fibronectin and interference in the liaison between fibronectin and integrins by the Arg-Gly-Asp-Ser (RGDS) peptide increased aggrecan expression, and decreased versican expression by TGF-β1 stimulation. These data suggest that fibronectin is a critical mediator for TGF-β-specific production balance of 2 major proteoglycans, aggrecan and versican, during chondrogenesis.     

Phosphoinositide 3-kinase γ plays a critical role in bleomycin-induced pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis in mice

PI3Kγ is central in signaling diverse arrays of cellular functions and inflammation. Pulmonary fibrosis is associated with pulmonary inflammation, angiogenesis, and deposition of collagen and is modeled by instillation of bleomycin. The role of PI3Kγ in mediating bleomycin-induced pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis in mice and potential mechanisms involved was investigated here. WT or PI3Kγ KO mice were instilled with bleomycin and leukocyte subtype influx, cytokine and chemokine levels, and angiogenesis and tissue fibrosis evaluated. The activation of lung-derived leukocytes and fibroblasts was evaluated in vitro. The relevance of PI3Kγ for endothelial cell function was evaluated in HUVECs. PI3Kγ KO mice had greater survival and weight recovery and less fibrosis than WT mice after bleomycin instillation. This was associated with decreased production of TGF-β(1) and CCL2 and increased production of IFN-γ and IL-10. There was reduced expression of collagen, fibronectin, α-SMA, and von Willebrand factor and decreased numbers and activation of leukocytes and phosphorylation of AKT and IκB-α. PI3Kγ KO mice had a reduced number and area of blood vessels in the lungs. In vitro, treatment of human endothelial cells with the PI3Kγ inhibitor AS605240 decreased proliferation, migration, and formation of capillary-like structures. AS605240 also decreased production of collagen by murine lung-derived fibroblasts. PI3Kγ deficiency confers protection against bleomycin-induced pulmonary injury, angiogenesis, and fibrosis through the modulation of leukocyte, fibroblast, and endothelial cell functions. Inhibitors of PI3Kγ may be beneficial for the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis.     

ROCK抑制剂对青光眼术后瘢痕形成的作用机制

目的：探讨Rho 相关卷曲螺旋形成蛋白激酶（ROCK）抑制剂对青光眼手术后瘢痕形成的影响,分析 ROCK抑制剂对瘢痕修复的作用机制。方法：健康大鼠分为模型组和ROCK抑制剂组（RR组）,采用MTT法测 定瘢痕组织中成纤维细胞增殖情况,RT-PCR 检测滤过道瘢痕组织转化生长因子-β1（TGF-β1）、α 平滑肌肌动蛋 白（α-SMA）、ROCK mRNA表达,免疫组织化学检测白细胞介素（IL）-1β（IL-1β）、α-SMA 蛋白阳性表达,免 疫印迹检测IL-1β、IL-6、血管内皮生长因子（VEGF）、α-SMA 蛋白表达。结果：模型组成纤维细胞的抑制率低 于RR组的抑制率,差异有统计学意义。RT-PCR 检测结果显示模型组TGF-β1、ROCK、α-SMA mRNA 的表达高 于RR组。免疫组织化学检测结果显示RR组IL-1β、α-SMA 的阳性表达显著低于模型组。免疫印迹检测结果显示 模型组IL-1β、IL-6、VEGF、α-SMA 的表达水平高于RR组,差异均有统计学意义。结论：ROCK抑制剂可通过 降低TGF-β1 mRNA、ROCK mRNA、IL-1β、IL-6、VEGF、α-SMA 蛋白的表达进而抑制成纤维细胞的增殖,阻 碍青光眼术后瘢痕的形成。     

Loss of Smad3 gives rise to poor soft callus formation and accelerates early fracture healing

Smad3 is an intracellular signaling molecule in the transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) pathway that serves as a regulator of chondrogenesis and osteogenesis. To investigate the role of the TGF-β/Smad3 signaling in the process of fracture healing, an open fracture was introduced in mouse tibiae, and the histology of the healing process was compared between wild-type (WT) and Smad3-null (KO) mice. In KO mice, the bone union formed more rapidly with less formation of cartilage in the callus and eventually the fracture was repaired more rapidly than in WT mice. Alkaline phosphatase staining showed that osteoblastic differentiation in the fracture callus was promoted in KO mice. Additionally, TRAP staining and the TUNEL assay revealed that the induction of osteoclasts and apoptotic cells was significantly promoted in the healing callus of KO mice. Sox9 expression clearly decreased at both mRNA and protein levels in the early stage of fracture in KO mice. In contrast, the expression of genes for osteogenesis and osteoclast formation increased from day 5 until day 14 post-fracture in KO mice compared to WT mice. From these results, we concluded that the loss of TGF-β/Smad3 signaling promoted callus formation by promoting osteogenesis and suppressing chondrogenesis, which resulted in faster fracture healing.     

PAX6抑制血管紧张素Ⅱ诱导的心脏成纤维细胞转分化

目的:探讨配对盒因子6(PAX6)在血管紧张素Ⅱ(Ang Ⅱ)诱导的心脏成纤维细胞(CFs)转分化中的作用及其机制。方法:培养原代成年小鼠CFs,用Ang Ⅱ(10-6mol/L)建立CFs转分化模型,利用小鼠PAX6腺病毒载体感染小鼠CFs;实验分为Ad-GFP+Ctrl组(感染对照腺病毒)、Ad-GFP+Ang Ⅱ组(感染对照腺病毒再给予Ang Ⅱ处理)、Ad-PAX6+Ctrl组(感染过表达PAX6腺病毒)和Ad-PAX6+Ang Ⅱ组(感染过表达PAX6腺病毒再给予Ang Ⅱ处理)。倒置荧光显微镜下观察CFs感染后荧光表达情况;采用Western blot检测CFs中PAX6、α-平滑肌肌动蛋白(α-SMA)、I型胶原(Col I)、纤连蛋白(FN)和转化生长因子β1(TGFβ1)的表达;固定细胞免疫荧光技术检测α-SMA、Col I和FN的表达与分布;qPCR检测PAX6和TGFβ1的mRNA表达。结果:(1)倒置荧光显微镜下观察腺病毒载体感染CFs成功,qPCR和Western blot证明CFs中PAX6过表达成功(P<0.01);(2)在Ang Ⅱ作用下,CFs中肌成纤维细胞标志物α-SMA显著升高,而过表达PAX6显著抑制Ang Ⅱ诱导的α-SMA表达(P<0.01);(3)过表达PAX6显著抑制CFs中Ang Ⅱ诱导的细胞外基质蛋白Col I和FN的表达与分泌(P<0.05);(4)在Ang Ⅱ处理后,TGFβ1的mRNA和蛋白表达显著升高,而过表达PAX6显著抑制Ang Ⅱ诱导的CFs中TGFβ1的mRNA和蛋白表达(P<0.05)。结论:PAX6通过抑制TGFβ1的表达从而抑制Ang Ⅱ诱导的CFs转分化及细胞外基质蛋白的表达与分泌。     

sTβRⅡ拮抗新生大鼠心肌成纤维细胞内TGF-β1诱导的Smad信号和肌成纤维细胞分化

目的研究可溶性转化生长因子-β1Ⅱ型受体(sTβRⅡ)对新生大鼠心肌成纤维细胞内TGF-β1诱导的Smad信号和肌成纤维细胞分化的抑制效应。方法培养新生大鼠的心肌成纤维细胞,随机分为4组:PBS对照组、TGF-β1(5ng/ml)组、sTβRⅡ(50ng/ml)组和TGF-β1+sTβRⅡ组。30min、1h和2h后,免疫细胞化学染色检测P-Smad2和Smad3的表达;24h后,免疫细胞化学染色检测α-SMA的表达。结果与PBS对照组相比,TGF-β1组P-Smad2、Smad3(核阳性率)和α-SMA的表达显著性升高(P0.05);与TGF-β1组相比,TGF-β1+sTβRⅡ组P-Smad2、Smad3(核阳性率)和α-SMA的表达明显降低(P0.05)。结论sTβRⅡ可拮抗新生大鼠心肌成纤维细胞内TGF-β1诱导的Smad2/Smad3蛋白的磷酸化与核转位,阻断Smad信号转导通路,抑制肌成纤维细胞分化。     

Progression of renal fibrosis in congenital CKD model rats with reduced number of nephrons

A congenital reduction in the number of nephrons is a critical risk factor for both onset of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and its progression to end-stage kidney disease (ESKD). Hypoplastic kidney (HPK) rats have only about 20% of the normal number of nephrons and show progressive CKD. This study used an immunohistological method to assess glomerular and interstitial pathogenesis in male HPK rats aged 35–210 days. CD68 positive-macrophages were found to infiltrate into glomeruli in HPK rats aged 35 and 70 days and to infiltrate into interstitial tissue in rats aged 140 and 210 days. HPK rats aged 35 and 70 days showed glomerular hypertrophy, loss of normal linear immunostaining of podocine, and increased expression of PDGFr-β, TGF-β, collagens, and fibronectin, with all of these alterations gradually deteriorating with age. α-SMA-positive myofibroblasts were rarely detected in glomerular tufts, whereas α-SMA-positive glomerular parietal epithelium (GPE) cells were frequently observed along Bowman’s capsular walls. The numbers of PDGFr-β-positive fibroblasts in interstitial tissue were increased in rats aged 35 days and older, whereas interstitial fibrosis, characterized by the increased expression of tubular PDGF-BB, the appearance of myofibroblasts doubly positive for PDGFr-β and α-SMA, and increased expression of collagens and fibronectin, were observed in rats aged 70 and older. These results clearly indicate that congenital CKD with only 20% of nephrons cause renal fibrosis in rats.     

TGF-β-induced fibroblast activation protein expression, fibroblast activation protein expression increases the proliferation, adhesion, and migration of HO-8910PM

Several studies recognize cancer-stromal fibroblasts' role in cancer-cell invasion and metastasis. Through paracrine signaling molecules, TGF-β and IL-1β, cancer cells activate stromal fibroblasts and induce the expression of fibroblast activation protein (FAP). FAP, in turn, affects the proliferation, invasion and migration of the cancer cells. We report that TGF-β and IL-1β are important factors in inducing differentiation of myofibroblasts and expression of functional markers, notably α-SMA. We discover that TGF-β is the dominant factor in promoting FAPα protein expression. This study also examines FAP's function in vitro by assaying the proliferation, migration and invasion of ovarian cancer cell line HO-8910PM.     

RGC-32 and diseases: the first 20 years

The response gene to complement (RGC)-32 acts as a cell cycle regulator and mediator of TGF-β effects. However, recent studies have revealed other functions for RGC-32 in diverse processes such as cellular migration, differentiation, and fibrosis. In addition to its induction by complement activation and the C5b-9 terminal complement complex, RGC-32 expression is also stimulated by growth factors, hormones, and cytokines. RGC-32 is induced by TGF-β through Smad3 and RhoA signaling and plays an important role in cell differentiation. In particular, RGC-32 is essential for the differentiation of Th17 cells. RGC-32^−/− mice display an attenuated experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis phenotype that is accompanied by decreased central nervous system inflammation and reductions in IL-17- and GM-CSF-producing CD4⁺ T cells. Accumulating evidence has drawn attention to the deregulated expression of RGC-32 in human cancers, atherogenesis, metabolic disorders, and autoimmune disease. Furthermore, RGC-32 is a potential therapeutic target in multiple sclerosis and other Th17-mediated autoimmune diseases. A better understanding of the mechanism(s) by which RGC-32 contributes to the pathogenesis of all these diseases will provide new insights into its therapeutic potential.

     

Ligand-independent transforming growth factor-β type I receptor signalling mediates type I collagen-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition

Evidence suggests epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) as one potential source of fibroblasts in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. To assess the contribution of alveolar epithelial cell (AEC) EMT to fibroblast accumulation in vivo following lung injury and the influence of extracellular matrix on AEC phenotype in vitro, Nkx2.1-Cre;mT/mG mice were generated in which AECs permanently express green fluorescent protein (GFP). On days 17-21 following intratracheal bleomycin administration, ~4% of GFP-positive epithelial-derived cells expressed vimentin or α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA). Primary AECs from Nkx2.1-Cre;mT/mG mice cultured on laminin-5 or fibronectin maintained an epithelial phenotype. In contrast, on type I collagen, cells of epithelial origin displayed nuclear localization of Smad3, acquired spindle-shaped morphology, expressed α-SMA and phospho-Smad3, consistent with activation of the transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ) signalling pathway and EMT. α-SMA induction and Smad3 nuclear localization were blocked by the TGFβ type I receptor (TβRI, otherwise known as Alk5) inhibitor SB431542, while AEC derived from Nkx2.1-Cre;Alk5(flox/KO) mice did not undergo EMT on collagen, consistent with a requirement for signalling via Alk5 in collagen-induced EMT. Inability of a pan-specific TGFβ neutralizing antibody to inhibit effects of collagen together with absence of active TGFβ in culture supernatants is consistent with TGFβ ligand-independent activation of Smad signalling. These results support the notion that AECs can acquire a mesenchymal phenotype following injury in vivo and implicate type I collagen as a key regulator of EMT in AECs through signalling via Alk5, likely in a TGFβ ligand-independent manner.     

低氧诱导肺动脉内皮细胞转分化的初步机制研究

目的观察低氧培养下肺动脉内皮细胞转分化现象及转化生长因子β1（TGF-β1）对内皮细胞转分化的作用机制。方法通过组织贴壁法分离培养的肺动脉内皮细胞,分别在常氧（含21％O2、5％CO2、74％N2混合气体）和低氧（含1％O2、5％CO2、94％N2混合气体）条件下培养1、4、7d,检测细胞形态表型变化和TGF—β1表达水平。不同TGF—β1或其抑制剂SD-208刺激肺动脉内皮细胞,检测平滑肌细胞标准蛋白仅．平滑肌肌动蛋白（α—SMA）的表达,来判断肺动脉内皮细胞转分化情况。结果低氧培养铺路石样肺动脉内皮细胞逐步向α—SMA高表达的多角形细胞改变,且TGF-β1表达水平明显增高。TGF—β1能刺激肺动脉内皮细胞可出现αSMA表达的增加,SD-208可抑制上述改变。结论低氧可促进肺动脉内皮细胞向平滑肌样细胞转分化;TGF-β1在此讨稃中发挥重萼作用。     

Epithelial-derived TGF-β1 acts as a pro-viral factor in the lung during influenza A infection

Mucosal surfaces are under constant bombardment from potentially antigenic particles and so must maintain a balance between homeostasis and inappropriate immune activation and consequent pathology. Epithelial cells have a vital role orchestrating pulmonary homeostasis and defense against pathogens. TGF-β regulates an array of immune responses—both inflammatory and regulatory—however, its function is highly location- and context-dependent. We demonstrate that epithelial-derived TGF-β acts as a pro-viral factor suppressing early immune responses during influenza A infection. Mice specifically lacking bronchial epithelial TGF-β1 (epTGFβKO) displayed marked protection from influenza-induced weight loss, airway inflammation, and pathology. However, protection from influenza-induced pathology was not associated with a heightened lymphocytic immune response. In contrast, the kinetics of interferon beta (IFNβ) release into the airways was significantly enhanced in epTGFβKO mice compared with control mice, with elevated IFNβ on day 1 in epTGFβKO compared with control mice. This induced a heighted antiviral state resulting in impaired viral replication in epTGFβKO mice. Thus, epithelial-derived TGF-β acts to suppress early IFNβ responses leading to increased viral burden and pathology. This study demonstrates the importance of the local epithelial microenvironmental niche in shaping initial immune responses to viral infection and controlling host disease.     

IKKα aggravates renal fibrogenesis by positively regulating the Wnt/β-catenin pathway

AKI (acute kidney injury) with maladaptive repair plays exacerbated role in renal fibrosis characterized by tubulointerstitial fibrosis. Previously, we reported that IKKα contributed to kidney regeneration and inhibited inflammation. Here, we first identified the role and mechanism of IKKα on TGF-β1-induced fibrosis in human tubular epithelial cells and fibrotic kidneys. IKKα was up-regulated in kidney tubular epithelium in unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) and unilateral ischemic reperfusion injury (UIRI) mice. Immunohistochemical staining showed that IKKα was positively correlated with the extent of kidney fibrosis in tissue biopsies from chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients. Compared with wild-type controls, Ksp-IKKα^−/− mice exhibited inactivated Wnt/β-catenin pathway, decreased serum creatinine and interstitial fibrosis in the kidney after IRI. In TGF-β1-stimulated human tubular epithelial cells, IKKα overexpression enhanced β-catenin nuclear translocation. Blocking IKKα by siRNA specifically suppressed β-catenin activation and downstream profibrotic genes such as fibronectin and α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA). Taken together, our study demonstrated that IKKα aggravated renal fibrogenesis by activating Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathway, providing a new target for the treatment of kidney fibrosis.