TNF-α诱导MLO-Y4细胞发生RIP3介导的程序性坏死

目的:探讨肿瘤坏死因子α(TNF-α)能否诱导小鼠长骨骨样细胞株MLO-Y4发生程序性坏死及其发生机制。方法:将MLO-Y4细胞分为正常对照(control)组、TNF-α处理组、TNF-α+necrostatin-1(Nec-1)处理组、TNF-α+Z-VAD处理组和TNF-α+受体相互作用蛋白3(RIP3)-siRNA组。用流式细胞术检测各组细胞凋亡或坏死率,透射电镜鉴定细胞形态学变化,用Western blot法测定RIP1、RIP3和cleaved caspase-3的蛋白水平,应用激光共聚焦显微镜观察RIP1和RIP3蛋白的共表达,应用荧光标记法检测各组细胞活性氧(ROS)水平。结果:TNF-α诱导MLO-Y4细胞24 h,凋亡和坏死率明显高于control组(P0.01)。与TNF-α组相比,Nec-1、Z-VAD和RIP3-siRNA均能降低细胞的凋亡或坏死率(P0.01)。在TNF-α组可见大量坏死样细胞,在Z-VAD组仍可见到坏死样细胞,而在Nec-1和RIP3-siRNA组未见到坏死样细胞。Western blot实验结果显示Nec-1可有效抑制RIP1蛋白表达,而Z-VAD对RIP1和RIP3蛋白表达无影响,RIP3-siRNA可有效降低RIP3蛋白表达(P0.01)。与TNF-α组比较,Nec-1可有效降低RIP1-RIP3蛋白共表达阳性细胞百分率(P0.01),而Z-VAD对其无影响。与control组相比,TNF-α组的ROS水平明显增高(P0.01);与TNF-α组相比,Nec-1、Z-VAD及RIP3-siRNA均能有效抑制ROS水平(P0.01)。结论:TNF-α能诱导MLO-Y4细胞发生RIP3介导的程序性坏死;ROS可能是MLO-Y4细胞程序性坏死的执行者。     

LPS联合z-VAD-FMK介导IFN-γ预处理巨噬细胞发生程序性坏死

目的:探讨脂多糖(LPS)联合z-VAD-FMK介导M1亚型巨噬细胞程序性坏死的机制。方法:使用佛波酯(PMA)和干扰素γ(IFN-γ)诱导THP-1细胞系分化得到M0和M1亚型巨噬细胞。以LPS(100μg/L)分别处理M0和M1巨噬细胞,检测不同时点的乳酸脱氢酶释放和DNA断裂情况,并观察不同抑制剂的影响。采用Western blot法检测受体相互作用蛋白(RIP)1、RIP3、细胞外信号调节激酶(ERK)、c-Jun氨基末端激酶(JNK)、P38和NOD样受体蛋白3(NLRP3)的蛋白水平。结果:LPS能够诱导M1亚型巨噬细胞发生死亡,联合z-VAD-FMK可特异性介导M1亚型巨噬细胞发生程序性坏死,而对M0亚型巨噬细胞无此作用。IFN-γ能够上调RIP3表达,并增强LPS介导的JNK磷酸化,RIP3和JNK抑制剂可部分阻断LPS联合z-VAD-FMK介导的M1亚型巨噬细胞程序性坏死。结论:IFN-γ上调RIP3和增强LPS介导的JNK磷酸化,使得LPS联合z-VAD-FMK能特异性诱导经过IFN-γ预处理的巨噬细胞发生程序性坏死。     

The role of RIP1 and RIP3 in the development of aplastic anemia induced by cyclophosphamide and busulphan in mice

This study aimed to investigate the role of RIP1 and RIP3 in the pathogenesis of aplastic anemia (AA) induced by cyclophosphamide and busulphan in mice. Animals were randomly divided into three groups: the control group, the AA group, and the Nec-1 group. Mouse AA model was established by intraperitoneal injection of cyclophosphamide (40 mg/kg/d) and busulfan (20 mg/kg/d) for 12 days. The Nec-1 group mice received intraperitoneal injection of Nec-1 (2 mg/kg/d) for 12 days prior to intraperitoneal injection of cyclophosphamide (40 mg/kg/d) and busulfan (20 mg/kg/d) for 12 days. The control mice received intraperitoneal injection of equal volume of saline. At 12 h after the last intraperitoneal injection, blood and bone marrow tissues were collected from mice. Peripheral blood cells were analyzed using hematology analyzer and the histological changes of bone marrow tissues were examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The levels of RIP3 and RIP3 in bone marrow were measured using Western blot analysis and the interaction of RIP1 and RIP3 proteins was investigated on the basis of immunoprecipitation analysis. ELISA was used to measure the levels of IL-6, TNF-α, and FLT-3L in bone marrow tissue supernatant. Apoptosis and necrosis of bone marrow cells were analyzed using flow cytometry. Western blot showed that the expression of RIP1 and RIP3 was significantly increases in AA mice compared to the normal controls. Immunoprecipitation detected the pro-necrotic RIP1-RIP3 complex, suggesting that RIP1 and RIP3 mediated necroptosis may involved in the damage of bone marrow cells. Compared to the AA mice, Nec-1 group mice exhibited significantly increase of peripheral blood cells and mononuclear cells in bone marrow tissues and decrease of the apoptosis/necrosis of bone marrow cells. In addition, we observed significant decrease of IL-6, TNF-α, and FLT-3L in bone marrow tissue supernatant in the Nec-1 group mice compared to AA mice. Our results suggest that Nec-1 can prevent the development of AA by inhibiting bone marrow cells necrosis and the production of inflammatory mediators. RIP1 and RIP3-mediated necroptosis may involve in the pathogenesis of AA induced by cyclophosphamide and busulfan in mice.     

血管紧张素-(1-7)通过抑制TLR4激活和坏死性凋亡的相互作用对抗高糖引起的H9c2心肌细胞损伤

目的:研究血管紧张素-(1-7)[Ang-(1-7)]能否通过抑制Toll样受体4(TLR4)激活和坏死性凋亡的相互作用对抗高糖(HG)引起的H9c2心肌细胞损伤。方法:应用Western blot检测心肌细胞受体相互作用蛋白3(RIP3;反映坏死性凋亡的指标)和TLR4的表达水平;CCK-8法测定心肌细胞存活率;用试剂盒检测细胞培养液中乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)的活性;ELISA检测细胞培养液中白细胞介素-1β(IL-1β)和肿瘤坏死因子-α(TNF-α)的分泌水平;双氯荧光素染色法测定细胞内活性氧簇(ROS)水平;罗丹明123染色法测定线粒体膜电位(MMP)。结果:HG(35 mmol/L葡萄糖)作用H9c2心肌细胞24 h可使RIP3的表达水平明显升高,应用30μmol/L TAK-242(TLR4抑制剂)和HG共处理心肌细胞24 h可抑制HG对RIP3的上调;另一方面,HG可上调TLR4的表达,100μmol/L坏死性凋亡的特异性抑制剂necrostatin-1(Nec-1)和HG共处理心肌细胞24 h可抑制HG对TLR4的上调;而1μmol/L Ang-(1-7)和HG共处理心肌细胞24 h能同时抑制HG对RIP3和TLR4的上调。此外,1μmol/L Ang-(1-7)、30μmol/L TAK-242或100μmol/L Nec-1与HG共处理心肌细胞均能对抗HG引起的心肌细胞损伤,细胞存活率升高,LDH活性降低,ROS生成和MMP丢失减少,同时IL-1β和TNF-α的分泌减少。结论:Ang-(1-7)通过抑制TLR4激活和坏死性凋亡的相互作用对抗高糖引起的H9c2心肌细胞损伤。     

RIP1-mediated regulation of lymphocyte survival and death responses

RIP1 is an adaptor serine/threonine kinase associated with the signaling complex of death receptors (DRs) including Fas, TNFR1, and TRAIL-Rs which can initiate apoptosis. While DRs are dispensable throughout development, RIP1 deletion results in perinatal lethality. The developmental defect caused by absence of RIP1 remains unexplained. In previous studies, RIP1-deficient hematopoietic progenitors failed to reconstitute the T cell compartment and our recent data indicate a new role for RIP1 in TCR-induced activation of the pro-survival NF-κB pathway. Here, we show that RIP1 is also critical for B cell development. In addition, RIP1(-/-) B cells stimulated through LPS/TLR4 are impaired in NF-κB activation but have no major defect in the Akt pathway. Recently, RIP1 has also emerged as a critical player in necrosis-like death, necroptosis, in various cell lines. We have demonstrated that RIP1 deficiency can reverse the embryonic and T cell proliferation defects in mice lacking FADD, a caspase adaptor protein, which indicates a potential role for RIP1 in mediating in vivo necroptosis. We provide an overview and discussion of the accumulating data revealing insights into the diverse functions of RIP1 in survival and death signaling in lymphocytes.     

Propofol Protects Rats and Human Alveolar Epithelial Cells Against Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Acute Lung Injury via Inhibiting HMGB1 Expression

High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) plays a key role in the development of acute lung injury (ALI). Propofol, a general anesthetic with anti-inflammatory properties, has been suggested to be able to modulate lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI. In this study, we investigated the effects of propofol on the expression of HMGB1 in a rat model of LPS-induced ALI. Rats underwent intraperitoneal injection of LPS to mimic sepsis-induced ALI. Propofol bolus (1, 5, or 10 mg/kg) was infused continuously 30 min after LPS administration, followed by infusion at 5 mg/(kg?·?h) through the left femoral vein cannula. LPS increased wet to dry weight ratio and myeloperoxidase activity in lung tissues and caused the elevation of total protein and cells, neutrophils, macrophages, and neutrophils in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). Moreover, HMGB1 and other cytokine levels were increased in BALF and lung tissues and pathological changes of lung tissues were excessively aggravated in rats after LPS administration. Propofol inhibited all the above effects. It also inhibited LPS-induced toll-like receptor (TLR)2/4 protein upexpression and NF-κB activation in lung tissues and human alveolar epithelial cells. Propofol protects rats and human alveolar epithelial cells against HMGB1 expression in a rat model of LPS-induced ALI. These effects may partially result from reductions in TLR2/4 and NF-κB activation.     

自噬对肾大部切除大鼠肾小管上皮细胞程序性坏死的影响

目的:探讨自噬是否参与肾大部切除(SNx)大鼠肾小管上皮细胞的过度死亡,及其与程序性坏死的关系。方法:48只雄性SD大鼠随机分为control组(6只)和SNx组(42只),分别行假手术和SNx。将24只SNx大鼠分为0、4、8和12周组;其余SNx大鼠分为SNx+vehicle组、SNx+necrostatin-1(Nec-1)组和SNx+3-甲基腺嘌呤(3-MA)组,每组6只。检测0、4、8和12周组大鼠肾组织RIP1、RIP3、LC3和beclin-1的mRNA和蛋白表达水平;用Nec-1和3-MA干预SNx大鼠,Western blot法检测LC3-Ⅰ、LC3-Ⅱ和beclin-1的蛋白水平,透射电镜和TUNEL染色判定Nec-1和3-MA对SNx大鼠肾小管上皮细胞死亡的影响,并观察Nec-1和3-MA对SNx大鼠肾组织的病理变化、活性氧簇(ROS)、血尿素氮(BUN)和血肌酐(SCr)含量的影响。结果:SNx术后8周大鼠肾组织RIP1、RIP3、LC3和beclin-1的mRNA和蛋白水平达最高值(P0.01);Nec-1和3-MA干预SNx大鼠的LC3-Ⅱ/Ⅰ和beclin-1蛋白水平、发生程序性坏死的肾小管上皮细胞及TUNEL阳性细胞数量均显著降低(P0.01)。另外,Nec-1减低SNx大鼠肾组织的ROS含量,但3-MA无此作用。结论:自噬参与了SNx大鼠肾小管上皮细胞过度死亡;抑制自噬可减轻SNx大鼠肾小管上皮细胞程序性坏死及其肾损伤。     

硫化氢通过抑制坏死性凋亡对抗高糖引起的H9c2心肌细胞损伤

 目的: 探讨硫化氢(hydrogen sulfide,H₂S)能否通过调控坏死性凋亡(necroptosis)对抗高糖(HG)引起的H9c2心肌细胞损伤。方法: 应用Western blot法检测心肌细胞内能反映坏死性凋亡的RIP3蛋白和cleaved caspase-3蛋白的水平;细胞计数盒测定心肌细胞存活率;双氯荧光素染色荧光显微镜照相法检测细胞内活性氧簇(reactive oxygen species,ROS)水平;罗丹明123染色荧光显微镜照相法测定线粒体膜电位(mitochondrial membrane potential,MMP);Hoechst 33258核染色荧光显微镜照相法测定凋亡细胞的数量。结果: 应用HG(35 mmol/L葡萄糖)处理H9c2心肌细胞3 h、6 h、9 h、12 h和24 h均能明显地上调RIP3蛋白的表达水平,其中24 h时RIP3蛋白水平增加最明显。400μmol/L硫氢化钠(NaHS;为H₂S的供体)预处理或坏死性凋亡的特异性阻断剂necrostatin-1(Nec-1;100μmol/L)共处理心肌细胞均能明显地抑制HG对RIP3蛋白表达的上调作用。此外,NaHS预处理或Nec-1共处理心肌细胞均显著地抑制HG引起的心肌细胞损伤,使细胞存活率升高,ROS生成及MMP丢失减少。另一方面,400μmol/L NaHS预处理心肌细胞能使凋亡细胞数量及cleaved caspase-3表达明显减少。结论: H₂S可通过抑制坏死性凋亡保护心肌细胞,对抗高糖引起的损伤。     

Necroptosis contributes to the NMDA-induced excitotoxicity in rat's cultured cortical neurons

Necroptosis is a newly discovered type of cell death characterized with the combined biochemical and ultrastructural features of necrosis and apoptosis. Nec-1 has been reported to exhibit the selective inhibition for necroptosis, which has now been used as an operational definition of necroptosis. The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether necroptosis is involved in the NMDA-induced excitotoxicity and furthermore whether the elevation of intracellular Ca(2+) is involved in the NMDA-induced necroptosis. Our findings showed that Nec-1 (100 micromol/L) inhibited NMDA-induced decrease of cell viability by 26% (p<0.01), suppressed NMDA-induced decrease of living cells by 23% (p<0.01) and attenuated NMDA-induced leakage of LDH by 28% (p<0.01). In addition, Nec-1 also suppressed NMDA-induced elevation of intracellular Ca(2+) by 36% (p<0.05). These findings indicated for the first time that necroptosis contributes to the NMDA-induced excitotoxicity, and the elevation of intracellular Ca(2+) may be one of the potential mechanisms underlying NMDA-induced necroptosis. Although necroptosis may be involved in NMDA-induced excitotoxicity, it may just constitute a small contribution.     

中枢神经系统损伤疾病的坏死性凋亡机制研究进展

坏死性凋亡是新近发现的一种程序性坏死途径，在死亡受体信号激活后由RIP1和RIP3调控，并可被化合物necrostatin-1特异性抑制。目前研究证实坏死性凋亡涉及多种中枢神经系统损伤疾病的发生机制，并且通过干预坏死性凋亡信号通路，对诸多因素引起的中枢神经系统损伤具有一定的保护作用。深入研究坏死性凋亡的分子调控机制，有望为中枢神经系统损伤疾病治疗提供更多的潜在新靶点。     

Manipulation of necroptosis by Porphyromonas gingivalis in periodontitis development

To eliminate invading pathogens and keep homeostasis, host employs multiple approaches such as the non-inflammation associated-apoptosis, inflammation associated-necroptosis and pyroptosis, etc. Necroptosis is known as a highly pro-inflammatory form of cell death due to the release of massive damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). For the first time, we reported that Porphyromonas gingivalis induced cellular necroptosis through receptor-interacting protein 1 (RIP1)/RIP3/mixed lineage kinase domain-like (MLKL) signaling pathway in monocytes. Necroptosis in THP-1 cells was induced by MLKL phosphorylation in vitro. P. gingivalis treated-THP-1 cells exhibited lower cell death rate with pretreatment of inhibitors RIP1 and MLKL, accompanied with attenuated TNF-α and IL-6 expressions. Moreover, the necroptosis risk was also reduced via gene silencing by RIP3 or MLKL in the P. gingivalis treated-THP-1 cell lines. We further explored P. gingivalis-induced necroptosis in animal models in vivo. Firstly, C57BL/6 mice were injected with P. gingivalis in the subcutaneous chamber model. Animals pretreated with MLKL inhibitor exhibited significantly enhanced P. gingivalis clearance; in addition, levels of TNF-α and IL-6 were notably decreased by 60% via MLKL inhibition. Secondly, P. gingivalis-induced periodontitis was utilized to investigate necroptosis related-periodontopathogensis. Positive staining of phosphorylated MLKL in mice periodontitis biopsies was detected to a higher degree, while larger amount of alveolar bone loss was observed in MLKL (−) group comparing to those in the MLKL (+) group. These findings may suggest that P. gingivalis play essential roles in necroptosis process during periodontitis, and our research may shed light on the further work on the related periodontopathogenesis investigation.     

RIP1在细胞程序性死亡中作用的研究进展

近期研究发现受体相互作用蛋白（receptor—interacting protein,RIP）是细胞生存和死亡的重要交叉点,在细胞的凋亡与存活、程序性坏死等过程中发挥着关键性的作用。RIP1为RIP家族中的第一个成员,是一种重要的细胞信号转导调控分子。RIP1的结构与生物学功能及在细胞程序性死亡中的作用具有重要意义。     

人肾小管上皮细胞necroptosis模型的构建

 目的：以体外培养的人肾小管上皮细胞（HK-2细胞）为靶细胞,构建肾小管上皮细胞凋亡样坏死（necroptosis）的模型。方法：采用肿瘤坏死因子 α (tumor nercosis factor α, TNF-α)诱导细胞凋亡,同时采用抗霉素A (antimycin A)耗竭ATP,构建肾小管上皮细胞凋亡的模型,并以caspase-8抑制剂苄氧羰酰-缬氨酰-丙氨酰-天冬氨酰-氟甲基酮(benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp-fluoromethylketone, zVAD-fmk) 阻断凋亡,用necroptosis的特异性抑制剂necrostatin-1（Nec-1）阻断necroptosis,观察细胞在不同的处理下形态学的变化,同时检测细胞存活率及标志物微管相关蛋白1轻链3-Ⅱ（microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3-Ⅱ,LC3-Ⅱ）的表达。结果：（1）在TNF-α+zVAD- fmk+antimycin A处理1 h时细胞及细胞器膨胀,电镜下细胞膜碎裂,线粒体变圆、肿胀,嵴逐渐模糊,胞浆中出现大量自噬小体,而Nec-1预处理后细胞的坏死程度较对照组明显改善。（2）在TNF-α+zVAD-fmk+antimycin A 1 h实验组,Nec-1预处理后细胞的存活率显著增加（P<0.05）。（3）TNF-α+zVAD-fmk+antimycin A干预1 h实验组在Nec-1预处理后LC3-Ⅱ的表达量明显下降（P<0.05）。结论：凋亡环境中阻断凋亡可以诱导肾小管上皮细胞necroptosis,抑制剂Nec-1能特异性阻断肾小管上皮细胞发生坏死。     

烟碱抑制RAW264.7细胞表达和释放HMGB1的机制

目的:探讨烟碱抑制RAW264.7细胞HMGB1表达和释放的机制。方法:(1)RAW264.7细胞在6孔板分组培养:仅加培养液为对照组(C);加LPS250μg/L为LPS组(LPS);在LPS基础上加烟碱1μmol/L和10μmol/L分别为烟碱1组(N1)和烟碱2组(N2)。培养24h后,RT-PCR检测各组细胞HMGB1 mRNA表达水平;Western blotting检测上清液和胞浆、胞核HMGB1含量。(2)用鼠α7nAChR基因反义和正义链RNA转染培养细胞后,再加含LPS250μg/L和10μmol/L烟碱于培养液分别作为反义链组(antisense RNA)和正义链组(senseRNA);以上述C组和LPS组为对照,2h后Western blotting检测上清液HMGB1量。结果:(1)C组细胞HMGB1 mRNA呈低水平表达(1659.20±121.05);细胞HMGB1 mRNA表达水平在N1和N2组及LPS组间差异无显著(P0.05)。(2)LPS组上清液的HMGB1量较高(445.34±28.52);N1和N2组上清液的HMGB1量显著低于LPS组(P0.05)。(3)C组胞核HMGB1量较高(335.46±12.24);而LPS组胞核HMGB1量明显低于对照组(P0.05);N1组和N2组胞核HMGB1显著高于LPS组(P0.05)。(4)AntisenseRNA组与LPS组比,培养液中HMGB1量无显著差异(P0.05);senseRNA组与LPS组比,HMGB1含量明显减少(P0.05)。结论:烟碱对RAW264.7细胞释放HMGB1有明显抑制作用;其主要机制可能是通过与α7nAChR特异结合而影响HMGB1的核转位。     

ATP敏感性钾通道在硫化氢抑制坏死性凋亡介导的高糖致H9c2心肌细胞炎症中的作用

目的:探讨ATP敏感性钾通道(K_ATP通道)在硫化氢(H2S)抑制坏死性凋亡介导的高糖(HG)致H9c2心肌细胞炎症中的作用。方法:应用Western blot法测定受体相互作用蛋白3(RIP3)和环氧化酶-2(COX-2)的表达水平;ELISA检测细胞培养液中白细胞介素-1β(IL-1β)和肿瘤坏死因子-α(TNF-α)的水平。结果:H9c2心肌细胞经HG(35 mmol/L葡萄糖)处理24 h,其RIP3的表达水平明显升高,100μmol/L K_ATP通道开放剂二氮嗪(DZ)和400μmol/L H_2S的供体硫氢化钠(Na HS)预处理心肌细胞30 min均可抑制HG对RIP3表达的上调;100μmol/L K_ATP通道阻断剂5-羟基癸酸(5-HD)预处理心肌细胞30 min可阻断Na HS对HG上调RIP3表达的抑制作用。另一方面,100μmol/L坏死性凋亡的特异性抑制剂necrostatin-1共处理或100μmol/L DZ、400μmol/L Na HS预处理心肌细胞均能抑制高糖引起的心肌细胞炎症,使COX-2表达及IL-1β和TNF-α的分泌水平均减少;而100μmol/L 5-HD能明显拮抗Na HS的上述抗炎症反应作用。结论:K_ATP通道在H_2S抑制坏死性凋亡介导的高糖致心肌细胞炎症反应中发挥重要的作用。     

Targeting death receptor induced apoptosis and necroptosis: a novel therapeutic strategy to prevent neuronal damage in retinal detachment

Retinal detachment (RD) is a common cause of human visual impairment. Detachment of photoreceptors from the retinal pigment epithelium causes photoreceptor loss and subsequent vision decline. Death receptor (DR)-induced apoptosis play critical role in activating apoptosis in photoreceptor cells. Z-VAD-FMK inhibits the DR-induced retinal neuronal apoptosis but promotes neuronal death through necroptosis pathway, an alternative programmed cell death, which can be inhibited by Nec-1. Thus, we may achieve a better result by simultaneous inhibition of DR-induced apoptosis and necroptosis, which provides us with a new direction in the treatment of RD.     

RSK3 mediates necroptosis by regulating phosphorylation of RIP3 in rat retinal ganglion cells

Receptor-interacting protein 3 (RIP3) plays an important role in the necroptosis signaling pathway. Our previous studies have shown that the RIP3/mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL)-mediated necroptosis occurs in retinal ganglion cell line 5 (RGC-5) following oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). However, upstream regulatory pathways of RIP3 are yet to be uncovered. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the role of p90 ribosomal protein S6 kinase 3 (RSK3) in the phosphorylation of RIP3 in RGC-5 cell necroptosis following OGD. Our results showed that expression of RSK3, RIP3, and MLKL was upregulated in necroptosis of RGC-5 after OGD. A computer simulation based on our preliminary results indicated that RSK3 might interact with RIP3, which was subsequently confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation. Further, we found that the application of a specific RSK inhibitor, LJH685, or rsk3 small interfering RNA (siRNA), downregulated the phosphorylation of RIP3. However, the overexpression of rip3 did not affect the expression of RSK3, thereby indicating that RSK3 could be a possible upstream regulator of RIP3 phosphorylation in OGD-induced necroptosis of RGC-5 cells. Moreover, our in vivo results showed that pretreatment with LJH685 before acute high intraocular pressure episodes could reduce the necroptosis of retinal neurons and improve recovery of impaired visual function. Taken together, our findings suggested that RSK3 might work as an upstream regulator of RIP3 phosphorylation during RGC-5 necroptosis.     

Quercetin Protects Mice from ConA-Induced Hepatitis by Inhibiting HMGB1-TLR Expression and Down-Regulating the Nuclear Factor Kappa B Pathway

The dietary flavonoid quercetin has hepatoprotective effects. We analyzed the effects of quercetin on concanavalin A (ConA)-induced hepatitis in mice and its underlying molecular mechanisms of action. Mice were administered quercetin (50 mg/kg body weight, i.p.) or vehicle 30 min before intravenous administration of ConA. Quercetin pretreatment significantly reduced the ConA-induced elevations in plasma aminotransferase concentrations and liver necrosis, as well as reducing serum concentrations of the pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interferon-γ, and interleukin-4. Quercetin pretreatment also reduced expression of high-mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1) and toll-like receptor (TLR)-2 and TLR-4 messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein in liver tissues. Quercetin pretreatment significantly inhibited degradation of inhibitory kappa B alpha and modulated ConA-induced nuclear translocation in the liver of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) p65. These results demonstrate that quercetin protects against ConA-mediated hepatitis in mice by attenuating the HMGB1–TLRs–NF-κB signaling pathway.     

The cytosolic pattern recognition receptor NOD1 induces inflammatory interleukin-8 during Chlamydia trachomatis infection

Inflammation is a hallmark of chlamydial infections, but how inflammatory cytokines are induced is not well understood. Pattern recognition receptors (PRR) of the host innate immune system recognize pathogen molecules and activate intracellular signaling pathways that modulate immune responses. The role of PRR such as Toll-like receptors (TLR) and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD) proteins in the endogenous interleukin-8 (IL-8) response induced during Chlamydia trachomatis infection is not known. We hypothesized that a PRR is essential for the IL-8 response induced by C. trachomatis infection. RNA interference was used to knock down the TLR signaling partner MyD88 as well as NOD1 and its signaling molecule receptor-interacting protein 2 (RIP2). IL-8 induced at 30 h postinfection by C. trachomatis was dependent on NOD1 signaling through RIP2; however, the IL-8 response was independent of MyD88-dependent TLR signaling. Activation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) mitogen-activated protein kinase cellular signaling pathway, which is essential for up-regulation of IL-8 in response to C. trachomatis infection, was independent of NOD1 or RIP2. We conclude that the endogenous IL-8 response induced by C. trachomatis infection is dependent upon NOD1 PRR signaling through RIP2 as part of a signal system requiring multiple inputs for optimal IL-8 induction. Since ERK is not activated through this pathway, a concomitant interaction between the host and bacteria is additionally required for full activation of the endogenous IL-8 response.