Air Quality Status During Diwali Festival of India: A Case Study

The PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ samples were collected during Diwali celebration from study area and characterized for ionic concentration of four anions (NO₃ ⁻, NO₂ ⁻, Cl⁻, SO₄ ²⁻) and five cations (K⁺, Mg²⁺, NH₄ ⁺, Ca²⁺, Na⁺). The results showed that the ionic concentrations were three times compared to those on pre and post Diwali days. Predominant ions for PM_2.5 were K⁺ 33.7 μg/m³, Mg⁺ 31.6 μg/m³, SO₄ ²⁻ 22.1 μg/m³, NH₄ ⁺ 17.5 μg/m³ and NO₃ ⁻ 18 μg/m³ and for PM₁₀ the ionic concentrations were Mg⁺ 29.6 μg/m³, K⁺ 26 μg/m³, SO₄ ²⁻ 19.9 μg/m³, NH₄ ⁺ 16.8 μg/m³ and NO₃ ⁻ 16 μg/m³. While concentration of SO₂ and NO₂ were 17.23, 70.33 μg/m³ respectively.     

Ambient air pollution and emergency department visits among children and adults in Casablanca,Morocco

This study presents the relationships between ambient air pollutants and morbidity and emergency department visits among children and adults performed in Great Casablanca, the most populated and economic region in Morocco. This research was analyzed using conditional Poisson model for the period 2011–2013. In the period of study, the daily average concentrations of SO₂, NO₂, O₃ and PM₁₀ in Casablanca were 209.4 µg/m³, 61 µg/m³, 113.2 µg/m³ and 75.1 µg/m³, respectively. In children less than 5 years old, risk of asthma could be increased until 12% per 10 µg/m³ increase in NO₂, PM10, SO₂ and O₃. In children over 5 years and adults, an increase of 10 µg/m³ air pollutant can cause an increase until 3% and 4% in respiratory consultations and acute respiratory infection, respectively. Similarly, impact on emergency department visits due to respiratory and cardiac illness was established. Our results suggest a not negligible impact on morbidity of outdoor air pollution by NO₂, SO₂, O₃, and PM₁₀.     

Spatio-seasonal variation in ambient air pollutants and influence of meteorological factors in Coimbatore,Southern India

Air quality is used worldwide to confirm the current status of air pollution level and associated health risks to the public. Several air pollutants reach very high concentrations in many regions across India. In this study, air pollutants were measured in an urban city of Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, Southern India, during 2013 to 2014 based on season and location, and the influence of meteorological factors. Air pollutants (PM₁₀, PM_2.5, SO₂, NO₂, CO, and O₃) across eight locations including industrial, residential, traffic, and commercial areas were assessed. The results showed that PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and CO were the most serious pollutants and their average concentrations ranged from 65.5 to 98.6 μg/m³, 27.6 to 56.9 μg/m³, and 1.58 to 8.21 mg/m³, respectively, among various locations. Significantly higher concentration of air pollutants was recorded in industrial areas followed by traffic and commercial areas. Comparatively higher mean concentration of O₃ (2.22?±?0.75 μg/m³) and CO (7.73?±?1.86 mg/m³) was recorded during the summer season, whereas the concentration of PM₁₀ (80.3?±?24.4 μg/m³), PM_2.5 (45.1?±?17.7 μg/m³), SO₂ (7.86?±?1.55 μg/m³), and NO₂ (13?±?1.81 μg/m³) was higher in southwest monsoon. Ozone (O₃) and CO positively correlated with temperature and negatively correlated with relative humidity. The level of PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and CO concentrations exceeded the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) guidelines. The present study’s results emphasize the need of effective air pollution control in Coimbatore. Precautionary measures to be taken to avoid exposure of air pollutants to the public and minimize pollutants. This study further suggests an investigation on the adverse impact on human health and environment using appropriate risk analysis techniques.     

Trends and patterns of air quality in Santa Cruz de Tenerife (Canary Islands) in the period 2011–2015

Air quality trends and patterns in the coastal city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain) for the period 2011–2015 were analyzed. The orographic and meteorological characteristics, the proximity to the African continent, and the influence of the Azores anticyclone in combination with the anthropogenic (oil refinery, road/maritime traffic) and natural emissions create specific dispersion conditions. SO₂, NO₂, PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and O₃ pollutants were assessed. The refinery was the primary source of SO₂; EU hourly and daily average limit values were exceeded during 2011 and alert thresholds were reached in 2011 and 2012. WHO daily mean guideline was occasionally exceeded. Annual averages in the three stations that registered the highest concentrations in 2011 and 2012 were between 9.3 and 20.4 μg/m³. The spatial analysis of SO₂ concentrations with respect to prevailing winds corroborates a clear influence of the refinery to the SO₂ levels. In 2014 and 2015, the refinery did not operate and the concentrations fell abruptly to background levels of 2.5–7.1 μg/m³ far below from WHO AQG. NO₂ EU limit values, as well as WHO AQG for the period 2011–2015, were not exceeded. The progressive dieselization of the vehicle fleet caused an increment on NO₂ annual mean concentrations (from 2011 to 2015) measured at two stations close to busy roads 25 to 31 μg/m³ (+21%) and 27 to 35 μg/m³ (+29%). NO _x daily and weekly cycles (working days and weekends) were characterized. An anti-correlation was found between NO _x and O₃, showing that O₃ is titrated by locally emitted NO. Higher O₃ concentrations were reported because less NO _x emitted during the weekends showing a clear weekend effect. Saharan dust intrusions have a significant impact on PM levels. After subtracting natural sources contribution, none of the stations reached the EU maximum 35 yearly exceedances of daily means despite seldom exceedances at some stations. None of the stations exceeded the annual mean EU limit values; however, many stations exceeded the annual mean WHO AQG. Observed PM₁₀ annual average concentrations in all the stations fluctuated between 10.1 and 35.3 μg/m³, where background concentrations were 6.5–24.4 μg/m³ and natural contributions: 4.2–9.1 μg/m³. No PM₁₀ temporal trends were identified during the period except for an effect of washout due to the rain: concentrations were lower in 2013 and 2014 (the most rainy years of the period). None of the stations reached the PM_2.5 annual mean EU 2015 limit value. However, almost all the stations registered daily mean WHO AQG exceedances. During 2015, PM_2.5 concentrations were higher than the previous years (2015, 8.8–12.3 μg/m³; 2011–2014, 3.7–9.6 μg/m³). O₃ complied with EU target values; stricter WHO AQG were sometimes exceeded in all the stations for the whole time period.     

Study on ambient air quality in Beijing for the summer 2008 Olympic Games

With the coming/approaching of the Olympic Games in 2008, air pollution in Beijing attracts the attention of government and people. The objective of this study is to define the air quality during the Olympic Games; we conducted the observation of SO₂, NO, CO, NO₂, O₃, and PM₁₀ from August 7 to September 30 in 2007 in Beijing. The results showed that the average daily concentrations of SO₂, NO₂, CO, and PM₁₀ during observation were 0.024, 0.072, 2.25, and 0.19 mg m⁻³, respectively. Compared with the National Ambient Air Quality Standard II, the concentrations of SO₂ and CO in the observation were low, the concentration of NO₂ basically satisfied the National Ambient Air Quality Standard II, and the concentrations of O₃ and PM₁₀ were much higher than the values of the standard. The characteristics of diurnal variation of NO, NO₂, CO, and PM₁₀ were similar, and the lower concentrations of these pollutants were observed by day and the higher concentrations at night. The concentration of SO₂ in the daytime was a little higher than that at night. The highest 1-h concentration of O₃ occurred at 14:00 local time.     

Characteristics and Sources of Water-Soluble Ionic Species Associated with PM10 Particles in the Ambient Air of Central India

PM₁₀ aerosol samples were collected in Durg City, India from July 2009 to June 2010 using an Andersen aerosol sampler and analyzed for eight water-soluble ionic species, namely, Na⁺, NH₄ ⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Cl⁻, NO₃ ⁻ and SO₄ ²⁻ by ion chromatography. The annual average concentration of PM₁₀ (253.5 ± 99.4 μg/m³) was four times higher than the Indian National Ambient Air Quality Standard of 60 μg/m³ prescribed by the Central Pollution Control Board, India. The three most abundant ions were SO₄ ²⁻, NO₃ ⁻, and NH₄ ⁺, with average concentrations of 8.88 ± 4.81, 5.63 ± 2.22, and 5.18 ± 1.76 μg/m³, respectively, and in turn accounting for 27.1 %, 16.5 %, and 15.5 % of the total water-soluble ions analyzed. Seasonal variation was similar for all secondary ions i.e., SO₄ ²⁻, NO₃ ⁻, and NH₄ ⁺, with high concentrations during winter and low concentrations during monsoon. Varimax Rotated Component Matrix principal component analysis identified secondary aerosols, crustal resuspension, and coal and biomass burning as common sources of PM₁₀ in Durg City, India.     

An assessment of air pollution and its attributable mortality in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

Epidemiologic studies have consistently reported associations between outdoor fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) air pollution and adverse health effects. Although Asia bears the majority of the public health burden from air pollution, few epidemiologic studies have been conducted outside of North America and Europe due in part to challenges in population exposure assessment. We assessed the feasibility of two current exposure assessment techniques, land use regression (LUR) modeling and mobile monitoring, and estimated the mortality attributable to air pollution in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. We developed LUR models for predicting wintertime spatial patterns of NO₂ and SO₂ based on 2-week passive Ogawa measurements at 37 locations and freely available geographic predictors. The models explained 74% and 78% of the variance in NO₂ and SO₂, respectively. Land cover characteristics derived from satellite images were useful predictors of both pollutants. Mobile PM_2.5 monitoring with an integrating nephelometer also showed promise, capturing substantial spatial variation in PM_2.5 concentrations. The spatial patterns in SO₂ and PM, seasonal and diurnal patterns in PM_2.5, and high wintertime PM_2.5/PM₁₀ ratios were consistent with a major impact from coal and wood combustion in the city’s low-income traditional housing (ger) areas. The annual average concentration of PM_2.5 measured at a centrally located government monitoring site was 75 μg/m³ or more than seven times the World Health Organization’s PM_2.5 air quality guideline, driven by a wintertime average concentration of 148 μg/m³. PM_2.5 concentrations measured in a traditional housing area were higher, with a wintertime mean PM_2.5 concentration of 250 μg/m³. We conservatively estimated that 29% (95% CI, 12–43%) of cardiopulmonary deaths and 40% (95% CI, 17–56%) of lung cancer deaths in the city are attributable to outdoor air pollution. These deaths correspond to nearly 10% of the city’s total mortality, with estimates ranging to more than 13% of mortality under less conservative model assumptions. LUR models and mobile monitoring can be successfully implemented in developing country cities, thus cost-effectively improving exposure assessment for epidemiology and risk assessment. Air pollution represents a major threat to public health in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, and reducing home heating emissions in traditional housing areas should be the primary focus of air pollution control efforts.     

A Study on the Seasonal Mass Closure of Ambient Fine and Coarse Dusts in Zabrze,Poland

Diurnal samples of PM_2.5 and PM_2.5–10 were taken in an urban background area in Zabrze (Upper Silesia in southern Poland) in the winter (January–March) and summer (July–September) of 2009. The samples were analyzed for carbon (organic and elemental), water soluble ions (Na⁺, NH₄ ⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, F⁻, Cl⁻, NO₃ ⁻, PO₄ ³⁻, SO₄ ²⁻) and concentrations of 27 elements by using, respectively, a Behr C50 IRF carbon analyzer, a Herisau Metrohm AG ion chromatograph, and a PANalitycal EPSILON 5 X-ray fluorescence spectrometer. To perform the mass closure calculations for both dust fractions in the two periods, the particulate matter (PM) chemical components were categorized into organic matter, elemental carbon, secondary inorganic aerosol, crustal matter, marine components and unidentified matter. The chemical composition of the two dust fractions and the element enrichment coefficients in the two seasons, referred to proper emission profiles, proved about 80% of PM_2.5 and more than 50% (in winter 65%) of PM_2.5–10 mass coming from anthropogenic sources, mainly from fuel combustion and specific municipal emission shaping the winter emission of ambient dust in the area.     

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) in PM10 Surrounding a Chemical Industrial Zone in Shanghai, China

In order to gain comprehensive understanding of status, properties and sources of PCBs pollution at an industrial area in Shanghai, PM₁₀ were collected during the period November 2004–September 2005. The results showed that the mean value of total PCBs in the industrial area was 2,017.22 pg m⁻³. Three dioxin-like PCB congeners had a mean value of TEQ of 0.24 pg-TEQ m⁻³. The concentrations of PCBs at all sites were higher in colder months than in warmer months. ΣPCB concentrations were correlated positively with SO₂, NO₂ and OCPs, while negatively with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), ambient temperature, rainfall and wind speed. It could be concluded that the area had been contaminated by PCBs from a local source.     

Spatial and temporal variations in criteria air pollutants in three typical terrain regions in Shaanxi,China, during 2015

Numerous studies have investigated air pollution in severely polluted plains, but the characteristics of pollutants are not well understood in other terrain regions. In this study, air pollution characteristics were analyzed in three typical terrain regions (plateau, plain, and mountain regions) in Shaanxi, based on hourly ambient monitoring of particulate matter with diameter less than 2.5 μm (PM_2.5) and less than 10 μm (PM₁₀), CO, SO₂, NO₂, and O₃ in 2015. PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ were the dominant pollutants in three regions, and their annual concentrations exceeded the Grade II standards by 9.4–68.6 and 6.0–73.9%, respectively. PM_2.5, PM₁₀, CO, SO₂, and NO₂ concentrations had similar seasonal trends with highest values in winter and lowest values in summer, whereas O₃ concentrations exhibited the opposite trend. Guanzhong Plain had higher PM_2.5, PM₁₀, NO₂, and SO₂ concentrations but lower CO, 1-h peak O₃, and 8-h peak O₃ (8 h-O₃) compared to other regions. PM_2.5, PM₁₀, and 8 h-O₃ were the three main dominant pollutants. The nonattainment rate was highest in winter and lowest in summer or autumn. Pollution also exhibited synergy, especially in the plateau region and Guanzhong Plain. PM_2.5 was significantly correlated with PM₁₀. NO₂ and SO₂ were positively correlated with PM_2.5 and PM₁₀, while 8 h-O₃ generally had significant negative correlations with other pollutants, especially in the winter. These results provide a comprehensive understanding of pollution status in the three typical terrain regions in Shaanxi and are helpful for improving air quality.     

Characteristics of PM<Subscript>2.5</Subscript> and its chemical constituents in Beijing,Seoul, and Nagasaki

Ambient fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) samples were collected from September 2013 to May 2015 in three cities in East Asian countries (Beijing, China; Seoul, South Korea; and Nagasaki, Japan) in order to analyze the spatiotemporal trends of PM_2.5 chemical constituents including organic matter (OM), elemental carbon (EC), water-soluble inorganic ions (NO₃^?, SO₄^2?, and NH₄⁺), and trace elements. The average PM_2.5 mass concentration were 125?±?6.80 μg m^?3, 44.6?±?0.84 μg m^?3, and 17.4?±?0.37 μg m^?3 in Beijing, Seoul, and Nagasaki, respectively. Higher carbonaceous concentrations were observed during winter in Beijing and Seoul, while higher concentrations were found during spring in Nagasaki. The highest seasonal averages of organic carbon (OC) to EC ratios were found during spring in Beijing, winter in Seoul, and fall in Nagasaki. The concentrations of secondary OC and its ratio to OC were high during fall and winter. For ion species, NO₃^? was dominant in Beijing and Seoul, while SO₄^2? was dominant in Nagasaki. Increased contributions of mobile sources in Beijing and Seoul were observed, with higher NO₃^?/SO₄^2? ratios than those in Nagasaki. Three groups of air masses were found for the three cities using cluster analyses based on 72-h backward trajectories. The cluster from the Bohai economic zone had the highest concentration of PM_2.5 for Beijing. For Seoul, a cluster that originated from the Yellow Sea near an industrial area in Liaoning Province and passed through a highly polluted industrial area in southwestern Seoul had high PM_2.5 concentrations. A long-range transported cluster that originated in and crossed through heavily industrialized areas in China and South Korea for Nagasaki had higher ion species concentrations. The results of this study are useful to identify the current levels of PM_2.5 and its chemical properties to establish a control plan for PM_2.5 for Northeast Asia, including China, South Korea, and Japan.     

Determination of nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, ozone, and ammonia in ambient air using the passive sampling method associated with ion chromatographic and potentiometric analyses

Concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), ozone (O₃), and ammonia (NH₃) were determined in the ambient air of Al-Ain city over a year using the passive sampling method associated with ion chromatographic and potentiometric detections. IVL samplers were used for collecting nitrogen and sulfur dioxides whereas Ogawa samplers were used for collecting ozone and ammonia. Five sites representing the industrial, traffic, commercial, residential, and background regions of the city were monitored in the course of this investigation. Year average concentrations of ≤59.26, 15.15, 17.03, and 11.88 μg/m³ were obtained for NO₂, SO₂, O₃, and NH₃, respectively. These values are lower than the maxima recommended for ambient air quality standards by the local environmental agency and the world health organization. Results obtained were correlated with the three meteorological parameters: humidity, wind speed, and temperature recorded during the same period of time using the paired t test, probability p values, and correlation coefficients. Humidity and wind speed showed insignificant effects on NO₂, SO₂, O₃, and NH₃ concentrations at 95% confidence level. Temperature showed insignificant effects on the concentrations of NO₂ and NH₃ while significant effects on SO₂ and O₃ were observed. Nonlinear correlations (R ² ≤ 0.722) were obtained for the changes in measured concentrations with changes in the three meteorological parameters. Passive samplers were shown to be not only precise (RSD ≤ 13.57) but also of low cost, low technical demand, and expediency in monitoring different locations.     

Winter Mass Concentrations of Carbon Species in PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 in Zagreb Air,Croatia

The purpose of our investigation was to examine the mass concentrations of EC, OC and TC (EC + OC) in PM₁₀, PM_2.5 and PM₁ particle fractions. Daily PM₁₀, PM_2.5 and PM₁ samples were collected at an urban background monitoring site in Zagreb during winter 2009. Average OC and EC mass concentrations were 11.9 and 1.8 μg m⁻³ in PM₁₀, 9.0 and 1.4 μg m⁻³ in PM_2.5, and 5.5 and 1.1 μg m⁻³ in PM₁. Average OC/EC ratios in PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and PM₁ were 7.4, 6.9 and 5.4, respectively.     

Short-term effect of PM2.5 on daily hospital admissions in Madrid (2003–2005)

The aim of this paper was to analyse the effect of particulate matter PM_2.5, a recent air quality guideline value for the protection of health, on hospital admissions in Madrid, Spain. This dependent variable was used as a measure against the daily number of emergency hospital admissions from 2003–2005. The causes analysed were: all causes, respiratory and circulatory. The independent variables were daily records of PM_2.5, PM₁₀, NO₂, NO_x, SO₂ and O₃. Seasonalities, trend, flu epidemics, noise and pollen were used as control variables. Poisson Regression Models were performed to calculate the Relative Risk (RR) and the Attributable Risk (AR). The function relationship with hospital admissions was linear and without threshold. The RR for an increase of 25 μg/m³ in PM_2.5 concentrations was 1.07 IC 95% (1.05 1.09) for all causes; for circulatory was 1.08 IC 95%: (1.03 1.13) and for respiratory was 1.07 IC 95% (1.02 1.11). PM_2.5 concentrations were the only primary pollutant that showed a statistical association with hospital admissions in Madrid.     

Temporal variations,acidity, and transport patterns of PM2.5 ionic components at a background site in the Yellow River Delta,China

To better understand the pollution characteristics and potential sources of PM_2.5 ionic components at the Yellow River Delta (YRD), a semicontinuous measurement was conducted to observe water-soluble ions in PM_2.5 at a nature reserve in Dongying of Shandong province, China, in 2011. The results showed that SO₄ ^2?, NO₃ ^?, and NH₄ ⁺ were the dominant ionic species (constituting 93 % of the total ionic mass) with their annual average concentrations of 22.48, 12.77, and 11.21 μg/m³, respectively. These three ion concentrations were generally lower than those observed in major cities in China but higher than those in other rural and nature reserve sites. Ion concentrations exhibited large seasonal variations, and maximum values were observed in summer. SO₄ ^2? concentration presented a daytime peak in summer, autumn, and winter, while in spring, a relative flat diurnal cycle was observed. NO₃ ^? concentration changed with that of SO₄ ^2? during most of measurement period. Transport from surrounding areas contributed to the diurnal cycle of secondary ions. In addition, photochemical reaction and thermodynamic equilibrium played important roles on the diurnal variation of SO₄ ^2? and NO₃ ^?, respectively. The aerosol at the YRD was weakly acidic, and it was most acidic in winter. A cluster analysis showed that fine particle pollution at the YRD was mainly affected by southwest local emissions and northern middle- to long-distance transport.     

Concentrations and Source Assessment of Some Atmospheric Trace Elements in Northwestern Region of Tehran, Iran

Outdoor concentrations of some elements such as iron, aluminum, magnesium, titanium, copper, zinc, lead, manganese, sulfur, chromium and arsenic in PM₁₀ and PM_2.5, was evaluated at four points in north-western part of Tehran in winter 2007. The total concentration of the elements in PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 at the north Karegar avenue found to be as high as 82.05 and 60.64 μg/m³, respectively, while at the Arjantin square it was measured to be 34.30 and 28.03 μg/m³. The emission sources of the trace elements were attributed to the adjoining local industries in the west parts of Tehran.     

Indoor–outdoor concentrations of particulate matter in nine microenvironments of a mix-use commercial building in megacity Delhi

Three naturally and six mechanically ventilated microenvironments (MEs) of a mix-use commercial building in Delhi are used to study indoor–outdoor (I/O) relationships of particulate matter ≤10 μm (PM₁₀), ≤2.5 μm (PM_2.5), and ≤1 μm (PM₁). Effect of environmental and occupancy parameters on the concentrations of PM during working and non-working hours (i.e., activity and non-activity periods, respectively) are also investigated. Average outdoor concentration of PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 were found to exceed the 24-h averaged national standard values, showing a polluted environment surrounding the studied building. During working hours, indoor PM₁₀ concentration was found 6–10 times, both PM_2.5 and PM₁ were 1.5–2 times, higher than the non-working hours in the selected MEs. The variations of indoor concentrations were highest (17.1–601.2 μg/m³) for PM₁₀ compared with PM_2.5 (16.9–102.6 μg/m³) and PM_1.0 (10.6–63.6 μg/m³). The I/O for PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and PM_1.0 varied from 0.37–3.1, 0.2–3.2, and 0.17–2.9, respectively. The results suggest highest I/O for PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and PM₁ as 3.1, 2.15, and 1.76, respectively, in all the three natural-ventilated MEs (canteen, kitchen, reception). Irrespective of PM types, the average I/O was <1 for mechanically ventilated MEs compared with >1 for naturally ventilated MEs. As opposed to PM₁, better correlation (r?>?0.6) was noted between indoor PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and CO₂ concentrations in most of the airtight MEs.     

Particulate black carbon and gaseous emission from brick kilns in Greater Dhaka region,Bangladesh

Eighteen brick kilns of three brick-making technologies (Fixed Chimney Kiln (FCK), Zigzag, and Hoffmann) were selected to measure the concentrations of particulate matter (PM_2.5) with Aerocet 531S (USA) sampler, black carbon (BC) with Magee Scientific, OT-21 Soot scan Transmissometer (USA), and gaseous pollutants (CO₂, CO, SO₂, NO_x, and volatile organic carbon (VOC)) with Aeroqual 500 gas sampler (New Zealand) to understand the emission scenario from brick sector in Greater Dhaka region, Bangladesh. Emission factor (EF) of each pollutant was computed from their respective concentration for three brick kiln technologies. Ambient PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ were measured in brick kiln premises and 1 km far from the respective kilns to see the effect on the surrounding areas. The PM_2.5 concentration was found on an average of 141?±?86, 128?±?72, and 110?±?53 mg/m³ in FCK, Zigzag, and Hoffmann kilns, respectively. The average BC concentration was found 16.6?±?7.1 (FCK), 11.8?±?4.2 (Zigzag), and 8.9?±?4.4 (Hoffmann) mg/m³. FCK has a greater emission of CO, whereas Zigzag has a higher CO₂ emission. A comparatively higher value of CO₂ and lower value of CO indicates effective combustion of coal, and this is found to be more efficient for Zigzag and Hoffmann compared to traditional FCK. SO₂ and VOC emissions were depending not only on the kiln types but also on the fuel qualities. From EF calculation, approximately 4526 t of PM_2.5, 340 t of BC, 209,776 t of CO₂, 8700 t of CO, 19,441 t of SO₂, and 835,450 t of VOC per year found to emit from 1000 brick kilns. The conversion of traditional FCK to improved one, i.e., Zigzag and/or Hoffman is not a straight forward solution, as CO₂ emission was higher in Zigzag whereas BC and PM_2.5 emissions were higher in FCK. Therefore, considering EF of various pollutants from these three types of kilns, conversion of FCK to Zigzag or Hoffmann could be a better choice.     

Impact of long-term exposure to local PM<Subscript>10</Subscript> on children’s blood pressure: a Chinese national cross-sectional study

The evidence of the effect of long-term exposure to particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter?≤?10 μm (PM₁₀) on children’s blood pressure is insufficient. We collected the data of systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP and DBP) for 71,763 children aged 7 to 18 from 30 cities from 2010 Chinese National Survey on Students’ Construction and Health, and the data of local annual average concentrations of PM₁₀, SO₂, NO₂, annual average of relative humidity, and ambient temperature from China Meteorological Administration and Ministry of Environment Protection of China. We used the generalized additive model (GAM) to estimate the associations between PM₁₀ exposure and children’s blood pressure. We found that there was a distinct geographic variation in the annual average concentrations of PM₁₀, ranging from 40 μg/m³ in Haikou to 155 μg/m³ in Lanzhou. After adjusting for individual characteristics, social economic conditions, ambient temperature, relative humidity, NO₂, and SO₂, we found that the increase of PM₁₀ was associated with increase of SBP and DBP in Chinese children. A 100-μg/m³ increase of PM₁₀ was associated with 0.88 mmHg (95% CI 0.71, 1.05) higher SBP and 0.91 mmHg (95% CI 0.77, 1.06) higher DBP (p <?0.001). Consistent associations of SBP or DBP with PM₁₀ were found in both girls and boys. We also found a larger estimated effect of PM₁₀ on SBP and DBP in overweight children than that in normal ones. Public health policy for improving the air quality could be helpful to protect children’s cardiovascular health.     

An association between long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and mortality from lung cancer and respiratory diseases in Japan

Background

Evidence for a link between long-term exposure to air pollution and lung cancer is limited to Western populations. In this prospective cohort study, we examined this association in a Japanese population.

Methods

The study comprised 63 520 participants living in 6 areas in 3 Japanese prefectures who were enrolled between 1983 and 1985. Exposure to particulate matter less than 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter (PM_2.5), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) was assessed using data from monitoring stations located in or nearby each area. The Cox proportional hazards model was used to calculate the hazard ratios associated with the average concentrations of these air pollutants.

Results

The 10-year average concentrations of PM_2.5, SO₂, and NO₂ before recruitment (1974–1983) were 16.8 to 41.9 µg/m³, 2.4 to 19.0 ppb, and 1.2 to 33.7 ppb, respectively (inter-area range). During an average follow-up of 8.7 years, there were 6687 deaths, including 518 deaths from lung cancer. The hazard ratios for lung cancer mortality associated with a 10-unit increase in PM_2.5 (µg/m³), SO₂ (ppb), and NO₂ (ppb) were 1.24 (95% confidence interval: 1.12–1.37), 1.26 (1.07–1.48), and 1.17 (1.10–1.26), respectively, after adjustment for tobacco smoking and other confounding factors. In addition, a significant increase in risk was observed for male smokers and female never smokers. Respiratory diseases, particularly pneumonia, were also significantly associated with all the air pollutants.

Conclusions

Long-term exposure to air pollution is associated with lung cancer and respiratory diseases in Japan.Key words: air pollution, lung neoplasms, nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide