The physician factor in cesarean birth rates

To investigate the influence of physicians' practice styles on the rate of deliveries by cesarean section, we studied 1533 affluent women at low risk of obstetrical complications who were cared for by 11 obstetricians in a single community hospital. The mean rate of delivery by cesarean section was 26.9 percent, but the rate ranged from 19.1 to 42.3 percent, according to the physician. The mean rate of primary cesarean section (i.e., the rate for women without previous cesarean deliveries) was 17.2, with a range of 9.6 to 31.8 percent. A stepwise logistic-regression model of the determinants of primary cesarean section, including the individual physician, parity, birth weight, and maternal age and excluding specific medical indications, showed that only nulliparity (P less than 0.0001) was more important than the identity of the physician (P less than 0.001) in its influence on the rate of cesarean section. Variation in cesarean-section rates among physicians was not attributable to the practice setting, the patient population, the degree of obstetrical risk, or the physician's recent medicolegal experience, and it was not accompanied by corresponding differences in neonatal outcome. We conclude that individual practice style may be an important determinant of the wide variations in the rates of cesarean delivery among obstetricians. Our data do not permit us to say with certainty whether the procedure is overused by some obstetricians or underused by others, but we found no obvious differences in neonatal outcome associated with differences in the cesarean-section rate.     

A successful program to lower cesarean-section rates

Despite the consensus that national cesarean-section rates are excessive, they continue to rise. Currently, approximately one of every four deliveries is by cesarean section. We developed an initiative to reduce the number of cesarean deliveries to a rate of 11 percent of all deliveries at our inner-city hospital. Participation by attending physicians was voluntary and not linked to any sanction. The program included a stringent requirement for a second opinion, objective criteria for the four most common indications for cesarean section, and a detailed review of all cesarean sections and of individual physicians' rates of performing them. During the first two years of the program, the cesarean-section rate fell from 17.5 percent of 1697 deliveries in 1985 to 11.5 percent of 2301 deliveries in 1987 (P less than 0.05). The proportion of infants with five-minute Apgar scores lower than 7 increased from 3 percent in 1985 to 4.9 percent in 1987 (P less than 0.05), but neither the fetal mortality rate (11.9 per 1000) nor the neonatal mortality rate (11.2 per 1000) in 1987 differed significantly from the rates in 1985. A single maternal death, unrelated to cesarean delivery, occurred during the study. Rates of both primary and repeat cesarean sections decreased, although only the decline in the rate of primary cesarean sections, from 12 to 6.8 percent, was statistically significant (P less than 0.05). During the same period, operative vaginal deliveries (i.e., forceps deliveries and midpelvic procedures) declined from 10.4 to 4.3 percent (P less than 0.05) of total deliveries. We conclude that an initiative within an obstetrics department can reduce cesarean-section rates substantially without adverse effects on the outcome for mother or infant.     

Predictors of cesarean section delivery among college-educated black and white women, Davidson County, Tennessee, 1990-1994.

Cesarean section delivery increases the cost, morbidity, and mortality of childbirth. Cesarean section rates vary nationwide with the highest rates occurring in the southern United States. The Department of Health and Human Services has published year 2000 objectives that include a 15% reduction in the cesarean section rate. This study identified factors contributing to cesarean section delivery among a cohort of college-educated black and white women in Davidson County, TN. Logistic regression models were applied to Linked Infant Birth and Death certificate data from 1990-1994. Data on singleton first births for 606 black women and 3661 white women completing 16 years of education were analyzed. College-educated African Americans were at a significantly higher risk of cesarean section delivery than whites. This difference could not be accounted for by controlling for all other variables. The geographic differences in cesarean section rates in this country may be the result of varying in provider practice styles, perceptions, or attitudes. Improving the health of women and children will require establishing a system of maternity care that is comprehensive, case-managed, culturally appropriate, and available to all women.     

Comparisons of national cesarean-section rates

Our study of cesarean rates in 19 industrialized countries of Europe, North America, and the Pacific revealed sharp differences in rates, ranging from a low of 5 (Czechoslovakia) to a high of 18 (United States) per 100 hospital deliveries in 1981. Differences in cesarean rates according to maternal age, parity, and complications of pregnancy and childbirth reflected national differences in obstetrical practice. For example, the percentage of mothers who had a vaginal birth after a previous cesarean section was only 5 in the United States as compared with 43 in Norway, where the cesarean rate was half that in the United States. Despite the wide range of cesarean rates, almost all the countries studied have had consistent increases over the past decade, and the annual rate of increase for all countries appears to be converging. The steady pace of increase in developed countries, combined with comparable or even higher rates of cesarean delivery now being reported in less developed countries, underscores the need for the medical community to consider the appropriateness of this continued rise in the number of cesarean deliveries.     

Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Diabetes Complications in the Northeastern United States: The Role of Socioeconomic Status

The role of socioeconomic status (SES) in explaining racial/ethnic disparities in diabetes remains unclear. We investigated disparities in self-reported diabetes complications and the role of macro (eg, income, education) and micro (eg, owning a home or having a checking account) SES indicators in explaining these differences. The sample included individuals with a diagnosis of diabetes (N = 795) who were aged, on average, 55 years, and 55.6% non-Hispanic white, 25.0% African American, and 19.4% Hispanic. Approximately 8% reported nephropathy, 35% reported retinopathy, and 16% reported cardiovascular disease. There were significant disparities in the rates of complications among non-Hispanic white, African American, and Hispanic participants, with Hispanic participants having the highest rates of nephropathy, retinopathy, and cardiovascular disease. Macro SES indicators (eg, income) mediated racial differences (ie, non-Hispanic whites vs African Americans) in self-reported retinopathy, a combination of macro and more micro SES indicators (eg, education, income, and owning a home or having a checking account) mediated racial/ethnic differences (ie, non-Hispanic white vs Hispanic participants) in self-reported cardiovascular disease, and only micro SES indicators (eg, owning a home or having a checking account) mediated differences between lower-income SES racial/ethnic minority groups (ie, African American vs Hispanic participants) in self-reported retinopathy and cardiovascular disease. Findings underscore that indicators of SES must be sensitive to the outcome of interest and the racial/ethnic groups being compared.     

Induction of labor as compared with serial antenatal monitoring in post-term pregnancy. A randomized controlled trial. The Canadian Multicenter Post-term Pregnancy Trial Group.

BACKGROUND. The rates of perinatal mortality and neonatal morbidity are higher for post-term pregnancies than for term pregnancies. It is not known, however, whether the induction of labor results in better outcomes than does serial fetal monitoring while awaiting spontaneous labor. METHODS. We studied 3407 women with uncomplicated pregnancies of 41 or more weeks' duration. The women were randomly assigned to undergo induction of labor or to have serial antenatal monitoring and spontaneous labor unless there was evidence of fetal or maternal compromise, in which case labor was induced or cesarean section was performed. In the induction group, labor was induced by the intracervical application of prostaglandin E2. Serial antenatal monitoring consisted of counts of fetal kicks, nonstress tests, and assessments of amniotic-fluid volume. The outcomes we measured were the rates of perinatal mortality, neonatal morbidity, and delivery by cesarean section. RESULTS. Among the 1701 women in the induction group, 360 (21.2 percent) underwent cesarean section, as compared with 418 (24.5 percent) of the 1706 women in the monitoring group (P = 0.03). This difference resulted from a lower rate of cesarean section performed because of fetal distress among the women in the induction group (5.7 percent vs. 8.3 percent, P = 0.003). When two infants with lethal congenital anomalies were excluded, there were no perinatal deaths in the induction group and two stillbirths in the monitoring group (P not significant). The frequency of neonatal morbidity was similar in the two groups. CONCLUSIONS. In post-term pregnancy, the induction of labor results in a lower rate of cesarean section than serial antenatal monitoring; the rates of perinatal mortality and neonatal morbidity are similar with the two approaches to management.     

自由体位联合分娩镇痛仪在产程中的应用研究

目的 探讨产妇分娩过程中应用自由体位联合分娩镇痛仪的应用价值。方法 将我院2015年1月~2016年10月520例初产妇,随机分为观察组和对照组,各260例。观察组采用自由体位联合分娩镇痛仪,对照组采用常规分娩模式,观察产妇分娩疼痛度、自然分娩率、剖宫产率、产程时间。结果 观察组产妇疼痛评分明显低于对照组,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）;观察组产妇剖宫产率低于对照组,自然分娩率高于对照组,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）;观察组产妇产程时间少于对照组,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）。结论 产妇在自然分娩过程中,采用自由体位联合分娩镇痛仪的使用可有效降低产妇分娩过程中的疼痛度和剖宫产率,缩短产程时间,提高自然分娩率,值得在产科推广应用。     

A controlled trial of a program for the active management of labor.

BACKGROUND. Over the past two decades, the rate of cesarean section in the United States has risen from 5 percent to 25 percent of deliveries, primarily because of the increased frequency of dystocia (arrest of labor). One strategy that has been proposed for increasing the rate of vaginal delivery is a program of active management of labor that encourages early amniotomy, early diagnosis of slow progress in labor, and the use of higher than usual doses of oxytocin; the efficacy and safety of this approach are uncertain, however. METHODS. We conducted a randomized trial in which nulliparous women in spontaneous labor at term were randomly assigned to either active management of labor or traditional management. With active management, amniotomy was performed within one hour of the diagnosis of labor, and when the rate of cervical dilation was less than 1 cm per hour, oxytocin was infused at an initial rate of 6 mU per minute. The dose was increased by 6 mU per minute every 15 minutes (to a maximum of 36 mU per minute) until there were seven contractions every 15 minutes. RESULTS. For the women assigned to active management (n = 351), the cesarean-section rate was 10.5 percent, as compared with 14.1 percent for those assigned to traditional management (n = 354, P = 0.18). The 26 percent reduction in the cesarean-section rate was due primarily to a decrease in dystocia. After we controlled for potential confounding variables, the reduction in the rate of delivery by cesarean section was statistically significant (odds ratio for women given active as compared with traditional management, 0.57; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.36 to 0.95). With active management, the average length of labor was shortened by 1.66 hours, principally because of earlier amniotomy and earlier use of oxytocin. There was no increase in maternal or neonatal morbidity, and there were significantly fewer infectious complications in the mothers. CONCLUSIONS. The program we studied for the active management of labor reduces the incidence of dystocia and increases the rate of vaginal delivery without increasing maternal or neonatal morbidity.     

传统剖宫产与新式剖宫产术后再次剖宫产289例临床分析

目的分析不同剖宫产手术方式对再次剖宫产的影响,了解瘢痕子宫再次剖宫产手术的风险．以提高手术的安全性。方法回顾性分析289例再次剖宫产患者。其中对照组157例,前次手术为传统的腹部纵切口子宫下段剖宫产术,研究组132例,前次手术为新式剖宫产术。比较两组患者一般情况,包括：前次剖宫产间隔时间、年龄、孕周、新生儿体重等方面;术中情况,包括：开腹时间、总手术时间、术中出血量、粘连状况;术后情况,包括：术后排气时间、产褥病率、切口感染、产后出血。结果两组间一般情况各项比较。差异均无统计学意义。术中情况比较,研究组手术开腹时间、总手术时间、无粘连例数和重度粘连例数均明显低于对照组．前者分别为（8．33±2．65）min、（43．79±3．65）min、57例、15例,后者分别为（11．25±4．03）rain、（51．95±4．55）min、47例、48例,差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。术后情况比较,术后排气时间差异有统计学意义（P〈0．01）。结论新式剖宫产再次手术因粘连发生率低、手术时间短、术后恢复快,有利于降低再次剖宫产的手术难度和并发症的发生,值得在临床加以推广。     

超声引导下腹主动脉球囊封堵术在凶险性前置胎盘剖宫产 术中的应用研究

目的 探讨超声引导下腹主动脉球囊封堵术在凶险性前置胎盘剖宫产中的临床疗效。方法 选取2017年1月~2018年6月在我院住院治疗的凶险性前置胎盘孕妇93例,其中42例在超声引导下行腹主动脉球囊置管术后直接行剖宫产术的孕妇设为观察组,51例直接行剖宫产术,术中止血带捆绑子宫下段的孕妇设为对照组。比较两组孕妇术中、术后情况及新生儿出生情况。结果 观察组手术时间、术中出血量≥1000 ml、输血量≥600 ml、子宫切除率、凝血功能障碍发生率均低于对照组,住院费用高于对照组（P＜0.05）;两组术中术后并发症发生率、术后住院时间、新生儿窒息率比较,差异无统计学意义（P＞0.05）。结论 通过多学科联合,在超声引导下行腹主动脉球囊阻断术能够有效控制凶险性前置胎盘患者剖宫产术中引起的大出血,降低子宫切除率及输血需求,避免了胎儿接受放射线照射。     

The contribution of childbearing to the sex difference in first admission rates for affective psychosis

This epidemiological study examines the contribution of childbearing to the sex difference in first admission rates for affective psychosis. The effects of sex, age, marital status and parity on first admission rates are examined in 114 patients admitted from a defined catchment area. The rate of first admission in females is almost twice that in males. Using logistic regression analysis one significant factor accounting for this sex difference emerges: female parity. The effect of parity is evident up to the age of 54, and it entirely accounts for the sex difference in relative risk. Nonparous females have a lower relative risk of admission than males. An apparent effect of marital status is only significant in females, and is accounted for by parity and age.     

二次剖宫产术后并发症发生情况的临床分析

目的 研究我院二次妊娠剖宫产术后并发症发生情况,分析原因并提出预防措施。方法 选择2016年1月~2017年3月我院118例二次妊娠合并瘢痕子宫行二次剖宫产的产妇、126例二次妊娠首次行剖宫产的产妇及186例二次自然分娩产妇的病历资料进行回顾性分析,两两比较三组分娩前后并发症的发生率。结果 二次剖宫产组产妇的盆腹腔黏连、前置胎盘、产后出血、胎盘置入等并发症与首次剖宫产组及二次自然分娩组相比均较高,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）;首次剖宫产与二次自然分娩产妇分娩前后并发症发生率比较差异无统计学意义（P＞0.05）。结论 瘢痕子宫再次剖宫产术后并发症发生率较高,应提倡降低剖宫产率,鼓励自然分娩。     

Comparative effectiveness and costs of inpatient and outpatient detoxification of patients with mild-to-moderate alcohol withdrawal syndrome

We compared the effectiveness, safety, and costs of outpatient (n = 87) and inpatient (n = 77) detoxification from alcohol in a randomized, prospective trial involving 164 male veterans of low socioeconomic status. The outpatients were evaluated medically and psychiatrically and then were prescribed decreasing doses of oxazepam on the basis of daily clinic visits. The inpatient program combined comprehensive psychiatric and medical evaluation, detoxification with oxazepam, and the initiation of rehabilitation treatment. The mean duration of treatment was significantly shorter for outpatients (6.5 days) than for inpatients (9.2 days). On the other hand, significantly more inpatients (95 percent) than outpatient (72 percent) completed detoxification. There were no serious medical complications in either group. Outcome evaluations completed at one and six months for 93 and 85 percent of the patients, respectively, showed substantial improvement in both groups at both follow-up periods. At one month there were fewer alcohol-related problems among inpatients and fewer medical problems among outpatients. However, no group differences were found at the six-month follow-up, nor were differences found in the subsequent use of other alcoholism-treatment services. Costs were substantially greater for inpatients ($3,319 to $3,665 per patient) than for outpatients ($175 to $388). We conclude that outpatient medical detoxification is an effective, safe, and low-cost treatment for patients with mid-to-moderate symptoms of alcohol withdrawal.     

仿生气囊助产技术在自然分娩中的应用价值分析

目的 探讨仿生气囊助产技术在自然分娩中的应用价值。方法 选取2013年5月~2015年12月在我院分娩的400例孕妇,按照随机数字表法分为观察组和对照组。观察组238例使用仿生气囊助产,对照组162例自然分娩。观察两组产程时间、分娩方式、新生儿情况、产妇会阴情况、产后出血情况、宫颈裂伤情况、产褥感染、产后尿潴留情况。结果 观察组的第一产程时间、第二产程产程时间、总产程时间均短于对照组,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）。观察组剖宫产率为8.40%,低于对照组的11.73%,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）。观察组新生儿平均出生体重、1 min Apgar评分均优于对照组,差异具有统计学意义（P＜0.05）。观察组阴道分娩率、会阴侧切率、产后出血量均低于对照组,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）。两组患者宫颈裂伤发生率相比,差异无统计学意义（P＞0.05）。两组均未发生产褥感染和产后尿潴留。结论 仿生气囊助产技术能提高自然分娩率,降低剖宫产率,减少了母婴并发症,提高分娩安全系数,有利于母婴身心健康。     

A pilot seroepidemiological study of cytomegalovirus infection in women of child bearing age

Three hundred and forty serum samples collected from women of child bearing age, without any clinical evidence of cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection, were screened for the presence of IgG antibodies against CMV by ELISA test. The IgG antibodies were detected in 297 which gave prevalence rate of 87.4%. Significantly higher prevalence rates (p < 0.001) were observed with increasing age and with increase in parity. There was significant difference in the antibody prevalence in different socioeconomic groups. Seroprevalence rate was also found to be more in women from rural area than those from urban area, although the difference was statistically not significant (p > 0.05). Marital status showed no impact upon the seroprevalence of IgG antibodies in women.     

Racial Disparity in the Clinical Determinants and Outcomes of Cesarean Hysterectomy

This study was undertaken to compare the risk factors, indications for and complications rates of cesarean hysterectomy in patient from two different ethnic backgrounds—whites and nonwhites—using patients who had cesarean hysterectomy in the Detroit Medical Center from 1991-2007. During the study period, there were 42 599 cesarean deliveries, making the incidence of cesarean hysterectomy to be 3.7 per 1000 cesarean deliveries. Of the 158 cases, 8.9% were planned, while 91.1% were emergent. Among the emergent cases, nonwhites were more likely to have a higher parity (median [range], 3 [0-13] vs 2 [0-9]; p = .025), while whites were more likely to have a private insurance (64.7% vs 29.1%; p = .001; OR, 4.47; 95% CI, 1.98-10.09]. There were no significant differences in the indications for cesarean hysterectomy among the racial groups. Whites were more likely to have composite cardiopulmonary complications and urological injury compared to nonwhites, (17.6% vs 3.6%; P = .012; OR, 5.68; 95% CI, 1.50-21.51) and (26.5% vs 10.9%; P = .05; OR 2.94; CI, 1.12-7.75), respectively. In conclusion, beyond higher rates of cardiopulmonary complications and urological injury among whites, no significant racial differences exist in the risk factors, indications for, and complications from cesarean hysterectomy.     

Burden of childbirth

Summary Background: Aims of this investigation were to study the subjective psychological and physical stressful experience of childbirth burden on a scale with 7 choises and to determine physical and psychosocial factors, which influence delivery experience. Methods: Information on sociodemographic data, physical and psychiatric anamnesis, as well as obstetrical and psychological variables were gained through a structured interview. This was carried out on 1250 women on the fifth postnatal day at the maternity ward. Results: According to the burden of childbirth score all 1250 women were divided into three subgroups. Group A (low burden, n = 433), group B (medium burden, n = 516) and group C (high burden, n = 301). The comparison between these three groups with respect to burden of childbirth revealed sig-nificant differences for length and mode of delivery, parity, pregnancy risk factors, gestational age at delivery, prior psychopharmacologic medication, occupational satisfaction, trait anxiety and depressive mood. The multiple logistic regression analysis between group A and group C showed that length of delivery had the strongest impact on burden of childbirth followed by depressive mood, elevated trait anxiety score, mode of delivery (emergency cesarean section and delivery by vacuum extraction provide significant higher burden scores than elective cesarean section and spontaneous delivery), and occupational satisfaction (higher occupational satisfaction correlates with low burden of childbirth). Conclusions: In summary, burden of childbirth assessed on the fifth postnatal day is a result of a complex interaction between physical and psychological factors, whereby physical stressors such as length of labor, emergency surgical delivery and affective alterations such as elevated trait anxiety, depressive mood, and job satisfaction seem to be of predominant relevance.     

COOK宫颈扩张球囊与缩宫素促宫颈成熟引产的临床观察

目的 比较COOK宫颈扩张球囊与缩宫素促宫颈成熟的相关指标差异。方法 选取本院2016年12月~2017年12月的190例产妇作为研究对象,有引产指征且宫颈Bishop评分＜6分的产妇,有禁忌症的除外,评分数相同的平均分成两组,每组95例。观察组为COOK宫颈扩张球囊组,对照组为缩宫素组,分别比较两组产妇的宫颈Bishop评分、第一产程、第二产程、剖宫产率、新生儿出生体重、产后出血量及新生儿窒息率。结果 观察组产妇宫颈Bishop评分（8.8±2.4）分,高于对照组(6.3±1.30)分,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）;观察组产妇第一产程(6.71±1.90)h、第二产程（0.52±0.10）h,短于对照组第一产程（8.60±2.13）h、第二产程（0.67±0.16）h,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）;观察组产妇剖宫产率为11.57%,低于对照组的26.31%,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）;观察组产妇产后出血量、新生儿出生体重、新生儿窒息率与对照组比较,差异无统计学意义（P＞0.05）。结论 应用COOK宫颈扩张球囊后产妇的宫颈Bishop评分显著提高、缩短了产程,未增加分娩并发症。     

Undertreatment of glaucoma among black Americans

BACKGROUND. Cross-sectional studies and those using national data sets estimate that glaucoma-related blindness is between six and eight times more common among black Americans than among whites. Community-based studies have found that glaucoma is four to six times more prevalent among blacks. It is not known why blacks with glaucoma are more likely to become blind than whites with glaucoma. METHODS. To investigate the possibility that undertreatment of glaucoma is an important factor contributing to this higher rate of blindness, we studied the population-based rates of incisional and laser surgery for open-angle glaucoma among blacks and whites in a 5 percent random sample of Medicare claims for 1986 through 1988. RESULTS. For all U.S. census divisions combined, the rate of surgery for glaucoma among black Medicare beneficiaries was 2.2 times higher than the rate among white beneficiaries (95 percent confidence interval, 2.1 to 2.3). We calculated an expected rate of treatment among blacks on the basis of the rate of treatment among whites and the assumption that glaucoma is four times more prevalent among blacks--a conservative estimate. The observed rate of glaucoma surgery among blacks was 45 percent lower than the expected rate we calculated, which may in part account for the excess rate of blindness among blacks. The magnitude of this difference in treatment rates varied from 29 percent in the Middle Atlantic states to 50 percent in the South Atlantic states. CONCLUSIONS. Older black Americans are not receiving potentially sight-saving care for open-angle glaucoma at the same rate as older white Americans.     

Effect of mode of delivery in nulliparous women on neonatal intracranial injury

BACKGROUND: Infants delivered by vacuum extraction or other operative techniques may be more likely to sustain major injuries than those delivered spontaneously, but the extent of the risk is unknown. METHODS: From a California data base, we identified 583,340 live-born singleton infants born to nulliparous women between 1992 and 1994 and weighing between 2500 and 4000 g. One third of the infants were delivered by operative techniques. We evaluated the relation between the mode of delivery and morbidity in the infants. RESULTS: Intracranial hemorrhage occurred in 1 of 860 infants delivered by vacuum extraction, 1 of 664 delivered with the use of forceps, 1 of 907 delivered by cesarean section during labor, 1 of 2750 delivered by cesarean section with no labor, and 1 of 1900 delivered spontaneously. As compared with the infants delivered spontaneously, those delivered by vacuum extraction had a significantly higher rate of subdural or cerebral hemorrhage (odds ratio, 2.7; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.9 to 3.9), as did the infants delivered with the use of forceps (odds ratio, 3.4; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.9 to 5.9) or cesarean section during labor (odds ratio, 2.5; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.8 to 3.4), but the rate of subdural or cerebral hemorrhage associated with vacuum extraction did not differ significantly from that associated with forceps use (odds ratio for the comparison with vacuum extraction, 1.2; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.7 to 2.2) or cesarean section during labor (odds ratio, 0.9; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.6 to 1.4). CONCLUSIONS: The rate of intracranial hemorrhage is higher among infants delivered by vacuum extraction, forceps, or cesarean section during labor than among infants delivered spontaneously, but the rate among infants delivered by cesarean section before labor is not higher, suggesting that the common risk factor for hemorrhage is abnormal labor.