Complications of gallstone disease: Mirizzi syndrome, cholecystocholedochal fistula, and gallstone ileus

Gallstone is a common disease with a 10% prevalence in the United States and Western Europe. However, it is only symptomatic in 20-30% of patients, with biliary pain "colic" being the most common symptom. Complications of asymptomatic gallstone disease are generally rare, with an incidence of <1 %/yr. The most common complications of gallstone disease are acute cholecystitis, acute pancreatitis, ascending cholangitis, and gangrenous gallbladder. Less frequent complications include Mirizzi syndrome, cholecystocholedochal fistula, and gallstone ileus. Mirizzi syndrome and cholecystocholedochal fistula are two manifestations of the same process that starts with impaction of a gallstone in the gallbladder neck that results in obstruction of the bile duct, causing jaundice. The gallstone may erode into the bile duct, causing cholecystocholedochal fistula. Gallstone ileus refers to small bowel obstruction resulting from the impaction of one or more gallstones after they have migrated through a cholecystoenteric fistula. An accurate diagnosis is essential to the management and prevention of further complications. A variety of imaging and endoscopic modalities are used to make the diagnosis once the condition is suspected clinically. Treatment should be tailored to each individual patient. Management choices include ERCP, lithotripsy (endoscopic or extracorporeal), and surgery. Prognosis is frequently related to early recognition, management of any comorbid conditions, and careful selection of treatment modalities.     

Prevention or surgical treatment of gallstones in patients undergoing gastric bypass surgery for obesity

Opinion statement It is well known that obesity is a risk for gallstone formation and biliary sludge. Additionally, it has been clearly shown that rapid weight loss following bariatric surgery is a risk factor for cholesterol cholelithiasis. Multiple serious complications from gallstones such as cholecystitis, cholangitis, gallstone pancreatitis, and cholecystenteric fistulae may occur. Thus, it is necessary to employ medical or surgical methods to prevent or treat gallstones in this group. Therapy should be individualized. Although there is a high incidence of gallstones in this group, only a minority of individuals will develop symptomatic disease. When used in patients who are compliant, ursodeoxycholic acid therapy can be effective to prevent gallstone formation during rapid weight loss. The cost effectiveness of routine ursodeoxycholic acid therapy compared with the potential costs of complicated gallstone disease needs to be further investigated. Combined cholecystectomy with Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery is a safe and appropriate therapeutic option in those with preoperatively known gallstones, biliary sludge, and prior episodes of cholecystitis. However, routine cholecystectomy at the time of gastric bypass surgery is not warranted for all patients because of the increased time of operation and postoperative hospitalization, as well as all the potential complications after cholecystectomy. The approach of routine cholecystectomy in this setting subjects many patients to an unnecessary procedure because the majority will not develop symptoms or complications of gallstones. Furthermore, cholecystectomy is technically easier to perform after weight loss occurs.     

Histological alterations of the preampullary common bile and pancreatic duct in acute biliary and nonbiliary pancreatitis

Histological alterations of the preampullary common bile duct and the pancreatic duct were studied in the pancreata from 16 patients with acute biliary pancreatitis and 11 patients with acute nonbiliary pancreatitis. The corresponding controls either suffered from gallstone disease without pancreatitis or had neither gallstone disease nor pancreatitis. In acute biliary pancreatitis as well as in gallstone disease, a common channel is significantly less frequent than in acute nonbiliary pancreatitis and in the normal pancreas. The inflammatory alterations of the preampullary common bile duct are increased in biliary pancreatitis compared to nonbiliary pancreatitis and to controls. The inflammatory lesions of the distal common bile duct and distal pancreatic duct are significantly correlated. These findings favor the assumption that acute biliary pancreatitis is initiated by transient obstruction of the preampullary common bile duct producing a local inflammation which encroaches upon the adjacent region of the pancreatic duct.     

胆囊结石与急性胰腺炎的关系

目的 探讨胆囊结石患者发生急性胰腺炎（AP）的影响因素.方法 选取武汉大学人民医院消化内科收治的诊断为胆囊结石的患者118例,通过影像学检查,测量胆囊大小、胆囊结石大小及数量,判断是否伴有胆总管结石.根据有无并发AP进行分组,比较各相关因素对AP发生率的影响.结果 118例胆囊结石患者中并发AP 61例.74例的胆囊大小正常,其中49例（66.2％）发生AP;44例胆囊增大或缩小,其中12例（27.3％）发生AP.31例为单发结石,其中11例（35.5％）发生AP;87例为多发结石,其中50例（57.5％）发生AP.发生AP的11例单发结石患者,其中8例（72.7％）结石≥10mm;50例多发结石患者中41例（82.0％）结石＜10 mm.19例伴有胆总管结石,其中17例（89.5％）发生AP;99例无胆总管结石,其中44例（44.4％）发生AP.各因素的两组间差异均有统计学意义（Х^2=16.758,P=0.000;Х^2 =4.425,P=0.029;Х^2=13.434,P=0.001;Х^2 =12.994,P=0.000）.结论 急性胆源性胰腺炎的发生与胆囊结石相关,胆囊是否正常、胆囊结石大小及数量、是否伴有胆总管结石均是影响AP发生的相关因素.     

Do gallstones cause chronic pancreatitis?

Gallstones are well known to cause acute pancreatitis. However, the role of gallstone disease in the causation of chronic pancreatitis is still controversial. Abnormalities of the pancreatic duct have been noted in about one-half of patients with calculous biliary disease undergoing endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), but despite this, it is generally believed that gallstones rarely, if ever, cause chronic pancreatitis. The clinical significance and the natural history of the pancreatographic changes seen in patients with gallstone disease is not known. Studies of the pancreatic functions and long-term follow-up of patients with calculous biliary disease, especially those who have abnormal pancreatograms, and the effect of removal of the gallstone on the pancreatographic abnormalities and pancreatic functions are needed to clarify the issue.     

Do gallstones cause chronic pancreatitis?

Gallstones are well known to cause acute pancreatitis. However, the role of gallstone disease in the causation of chronic pancreatitis is still controversial. Abnormalities of the pancreatic duct have been noted in about one-half of patients with calculous biliary disease undergoing endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), but despite this, it is generally believed that gallstones rarely, if ever, cause chronic pancreatitis. The clinical significance and the natural history of the pancreatographic changes seen in patients with gallstone disease is not known. Studies of the pancreatic functions and long-term follow-up of patients with calculous biliary disease, especially those who have abnormal pancreatograms, and the effect of removal of the gallstone on the pancreatographic abnormalities and pancreatic functions are needed to clarify the issue.     

Acute pancreatitis associated with biliary disease in children

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Biliary disease is one of the most common causes of acute pancreatitis in adults; however, this cause and outcome in children have rarely been described in the literature. Therefore, the present study was conducted to evaluate the role of biliary disease as a cause of acute pancreatitis in children. METHODS: The present study included 56 children with acute pancreatitis, of which 16 (29%) cases were associated with biliary disease. The 16 cases consisted of four boys and 12 girls ranging in age from 2 to 13 years. The underlying causes of the biliary disease were evaluated, as well as its clinical presentations, management modalities, and outcomes. RESULTS: The causes of biliary disease in the 16 children included choledochal cyst in seven, biliary sludge in six, gallstone in two, and anomalous pancreaticobiliary junction in one. Acute pancreatitis with biliary disease showed increased presentation of jaundice and abnormalities in a liver-function test. Therapeutic interventions were performed more frequently in acute pancreatitis associated with biliary disease. All seven children with choledochal cysts needed hepaticojejunostomy. Of eight children with biliary sludge or gallstones, five children remained free of and two suffered from repeated attacks of pancreatitis after endoscopic papillotomy. Mortality did not occur. CONCLUSION: The present study suggests that biliary disease can be one of the causes of acute pancreatitis in children and has the clinical characteristics of jaundice and/or abnormalities in a liver-function test. Appropriate therapeutic interventions should be considered as the treatment modality.     

Acute biliary conditions

Acute biliary complications may result from several medical conditions such as gallstone pancreatitis, acute cholangitis, acute cholecystitis, bile leak, liver abscess and hepatic trauma. Gallstones are the most common cause of acute pancreatitis. About 25% of theses patients will develop clinically severe acute pancreatitis, usually due to necrotizing pancreatitis. Choledocholithiasis, malignant and benign biliary strictures, and stent dysfunction may cause partial or complete obstruction and infection in the biliary tract with acute cholangitis. Bile leaks are most commonly associated with hepatobiliary surgeries or invasive procedures such as open or laparoscopic cholecystectomy, hepatic resection, hepatic transplantation, liver biopsy, and percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) and endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) may have an essential role in the management of these complications.     

Relation between the risk of gallstone pancreatitis and characteristics of gallstone in Korea

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Pancreatitis is a serious complication of patients with gallstones. However, risk factors of gallstone pancreatitis were unpredictable until recently. In Korea, characteristics of gallstones are different from Western countries. The present study was designed to determine differences in the risk of gallstone pancreatitis and characteristics of gallstones in Korean patients. METHODOLOGY: Clinical data were collected on patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The physical characteristics of gallstones recovered at surgery were also recorded. Patients with gallstone pancreatitis were compared with patients who had uncomplicated biliary pain. RESULTS: In a logistic regression model, acute gallstone pancreatitis was associated with a stone diameter of less than 5 mm (odds ratio: 3.3695; P = 0.0352) and with stone number of more than 20 (odds ratio: 3.8686; P = 0.0361). No other variable, including pigment stone, age, and sex, remained statistically significant in the adjusted analysis (P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with at least 1 gallstone smaller than 5 mm in diameter and stone number more than 20 each have a more than 3-fold increased risk of presenting with acute gallstone pancreatitis. The composition of gallstones, especially pigment stones, was not an important risk factor in gallstone pancreatitis in Korean patients with stones having a different composition than those from Western countries.     

Gallstone disease. Complications of bile-duct stones: Acute cholangitis and pancreatitis

Gallstones are frequent in the Western world, with up to 10% of the general population affected. Gallstone prevalence is higher in the elderly and in women. Acute cholangitis and pancreatitis are the most serious complications of gallstones, with considerable morbidity and mortality. We discuss here clinical features, laboratory and radiological examinations, and treatment for gallstone cholangitis and pancreatitis. The diagnostic approach for acute 'idiopathic' pancreatitis is dealt with in some detail. Also, the role in pancreatitis of enteral nutrition, antibiotic prophylaxis, and the place of endoscopic retrograde cholangiography with papillotomy for biliary decompression is discussed in detail.     

高血糖与胆石症40例临床报告

目的 分析胆石症和糖尿病发病率之间的关系。讨论糖尿病合并无症状胆石症时是应该手术治疗以及糖尿病病人胆道手术的围手术期处理。方法 对４０例合并高血糖的胆石症病人进行回顾性分析。结果 外科胆石症 ６９３例,其中４０例合并高血糖。男性１４例,女性２６例,平均年龄６０．１岁。确认糖尿病１５例,可疑糖尿病１１例,应激性高血糖１４例。手术治疗３３例,胆囊切除１４例,胆囊切除、胆总管探查１６例,胆肠内引流２例,     

Symptoms of gallstone disease

The most certain symptomatic manifestation of gallstones is episodic upper abdominal pain. Characteristically, this pain is severe and located in the epigastrium and/or the right upper quadrant. The onset is relatively abrupt and often awakens the patient from sleep. The pain is steady in intensity, may radiate to the upper back, be associated with nausea and lasts for hours to up to a day. Dyspeptic symptoms of indigestion, belching, bloating, abdominal discomfort, heartburn and specific food intolerance are common in persons with gallstones, but are probably unrelated to the stones themselves and frequently persist after surgery. Many, if not most, persons with gallstones have no history of pain attacks.Persons discovered to have gallstones in the absence of typical symptoms appear to have an annual incidence of biliary pain of 2–5 % during the initial years of follow-up, with perhaps a declining rate thereafter. Gallstone-related complications occur at a rate of less than 1% annually. Those whose stones are symptomatic at discovery have a more severe course, with approximately 6–10% suffering recurrent symptoms each year and 2% biliary complications. The far higher rates of symptom development reported in a few studies raise the possibility that these incidence estimates may be too low. The best predictors of future biliary pain are a history of pain at the time of diagnosis, female gender and possibly obesity. The risk of acute cholecystitis appears to be greater in those with large solitary stones, that of biliary pancreatitis in those with multiple small stones, and that of gallbladder cancer in those with large stones of any number.Drugs that inhibit the synthesis of prostaglandins may now be the treatment of choice in patients with gallstones who are suffering acute pain attacks. Persistent dyspeptic symptoms occur frequently following cholecystectomy. A prolonged history of such symptoms prior to surgery and evidence of significant psychological distress appear to be the best predictors of unsatisfactory outcome.     

JPN Guidelines for the management of acute pancreatitis: epidemiology,etiology, natural history,and outcome predictors in acute pancreatitis

Acute pancreatitis is a common disease with an annual incidence of between 5 and 80 people per 100 000 of the population. The two major etiological factors responsible for acute pancreatitis are alcohol and cholelithiasis (gallstones). The proportion of patients with pancreatitis caused by alcohol or gallstones varies markedly in different countries and regions. The incidence of acute alcoholic pancreatitis is considered to be associated with high alcohol consumption. Although the incidence of alcoholic pancreatitis is much higher in men than in women, there is no difference in sexes in the risk involved after adjusting for alcohol intake. Other risk factors include endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, surgery, therapeutic drugs, HIV infection, hyperlipidemia, and biliary tract anomalies. Idiopathic acute pancreatitis is defined as acute pancreatitis in which the etiological factor cannot be specified. However, several studies have suggested that this entity includes cases caused by other specific disorders such as microlithiasis. Acute pancreatitis is a potentially fatal disease with an overall mortality of 2.1%–7.8%. The outcome of acute pancreatitis is determined by two factors that reflect the severity of the illness: organ failure and pancreatic necrosis. About half of the deaths in patients with acute pancreatitis occur within the first 1–2 weeks and are mainly attributable to multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS). Depending on patient selection, necrotizing pancreatitis develops in approximately 10%–20% of patients and the mortality is high, ranging from 14% to 25% of these patients. Infected pancreatic necrosis develops in 30%–40% of patients with necrotizing pancreatitis and the incidence of MODS in such patients is high. The recurrence rate of acute pancreatitis is relatively high: almost half the patients with acute alcoholic pancreatitis experience a recurrence. When the gallstones are not treated, the risk of recurrence in gallstone pancreatitis ranges from 32% to 61%. After recovering from acute pancreatitis, about one-third to one-half of acute pancreatitis patients develop functional disorders, such as diabetes mellitus and fatty stool; the incidence of chronic pancreatitis after acute pancreatitis ranges from 3% to 13%. Nevertheless, many reports have shown that most patients who recover from acute pancreatitis regain good general health and return to their usual daily routine. Some authors have emphasized that endocrine function disorders are a common complication after severe acute pancreatitis has been treated by pancreatic resection.     

胆囊结石形态与胆源性胰腺炎关系的临床分析

目的探讨胆囊结石形态与急性胰腺炎的关系。方法收集2011年2月至2013年2月收治的110例胆源性胰腺炎患者作为胰腺炎组,110例胆囊结石患者作为非胰腺炎组。分析比较两组患者胆囊结石大小、数量、形状及质地与胰腺炎的关系。率的比较采用卡方检验。结果胰腺炎组与非胰腺炎组结石大小、数量、形状相比较差异具有统计学意义(χ2=41.146、27.150、13.839,P均0.01);两组结石质地的比较差异有统计学意义(χ2=8.000,P0.05);轻型和重型急性胰腺炎患者中结石3 mm者分别为66.36%和86.67%,3~10 mm分别为17.89%和13.33%。结论相比较其他类型的结石,患者微小多发性、质软易碎的结石发生胰腺炎的几率增高;且结石越小,胰腺炎严重程度有增高的趋势。     

Surgical management of gallstone disease and postoperative complications

Symptomatic gallstone disease is one of the most common illnesses requiring surgical therapy. In the United States, an estimated 700,000 people will undergo cholecystectomy for gallstones this year. The average patient has an uncomplicated postoperative course and is satisfied with the results of treatment. However, complications do occur and the prudent clinician should have a clear understanding of their causes, prevention, recognition, and the management strategies for their successful resolution. These issues are reviewed in the this article.     

Small gallstones are associated with increased risk of acute pancreatitis: potential benefits of prophylactic cholecystectomy?

OBJECTIVES: Pancreatitis is a severe complication of gallstone disease with considerable mortality. Small gallstones may increase the risk of pancreatitis. Our aims were to evaluate potential association of small stones with pancreatitis and potential beneficial effects of prophylactic cholecystectomy. METHODS: Stone characteristics were determined in patients with biliary pancreatitis (115), obstructive jaundice due to gallstones (103), acute cholecystitis (79), or uncomplicated gallstone disease (231). Sizes and numbers of gallbladder and bile duct stones were determined by ultrasonography and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, respectively. Effects of prophylactic cholecystectomy were assessed by decision analyses with a Markov model and Monte Carlo simulations. RESULTS: Patients with pancreatitis or obstructive jaundice had more and smaller gallbladder stones than those with acute cholecystitis or uncomplicated disease (diameters of smallest stones: 3 +/- 1, 4 +/- 1, 8 +/- 1, and 9 +/- 1 mm, respectively, p < 0.01). Bile duct stones were smaller in case of pancreatitis than in obstructive jaundice (diameters of smallest stones: 4 +/- 1 vs 8 +/- 1, p < 0.01). Multivariate analysis identified old age and small stones as independent risk factors for pancreatitis. Decision analysis in a representative group of patients with small (相似文献   

Biliary microlithiasis,sludge,crystals,microcrystallization,and usefulness of assessment of nucleation time

BACKGROUND:The process of microcrystallization,its sequel and the assessment of nucleation time is ignored.This systematic review aimed to highlight the importance of biliary microlithiasis,sludge,and crystals,and their association with gallstones,unexplained biliary pain,idiopathic pancreatitis, and sphincter of Oddi dysfunction.DATA SOURCES:Three reviewers performed a literature search of the PubMed database.Key words used were"biliary microlithiasis","biliary sludge","bile crystals","cholesterol crystallisation","bile microscopy","microcrystal formation of bile","cholesterol monohydrate crystals","nucleation time of cholesterol","gallstone formation","sphincter of Oddi dysfunction"and"idiopathic pancreatitis".Additional articles were sourced from references within the studies from the PubMed search.RESULTS:We found that biliary microcrystals account for almost all patients with gallstone disease,7%to 79%with idiopathic pancreatitis,83%with unexplained biliary pain, and 25%to 60%with altered biliary and pancreatic sphincter function.Overall,the detection of biliary microcrystals in gallstone disease has a sensitivity ranging from 55%to 87%and a specificity of 100%.In idiopathic pancreatitis,the presence of microcrystals ranges from 47%to 90%.A nucleation time less than 10 days in hepatic bile or ultra-filtered gallbladder bile has a specificity of 100%for cholesterol gallstone disease.CONCLUSIONS:Biliary crystals are associated with gallstone disease,idiopathic pancreatitis,sphincter of Oddi dysfunction, unexplained biliary pain,and post-cholecystectomy biliary pain.Pathways of cholesterol super-saturation,crystallisation, and gallstone formation have been described with scientificsupport.Bile microscopy is a useful method to detect microcrystals and the assessment of nucleation time is a good method of predicting the risk of cholesterol crystallisation.     

Role of ERCP and endoscopic sphincterotomy in acute pancreatitis.

When assessing the indications for interventional endoscopy, obstructive and non-obstructive causes of acute pancreatitis should be distinguished. In non-obstructive (e.g. alcoholic) pancreatitis, no data are available proving any benefit for endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) and sphincterotomy. In obstructive (e.g. biliary) pancreatitis, the pathogenetic role of gallstones is controversial. The vast majority of gallstones initiating biliary pancreatitis pass spontaneously through the papilla of Vater into the duodenum without causing cholangitis or obstructive jaundice. Three prospective randomized published studies have attempted to answer the question of whether urgent removal of the stone improves the prognosis of patients suffering from acute pancreatitis. From these studies it can be concluded that the use of ERCP in acute biliary pancreatitis should depend on biliary symptoms: in cases of obstructive jaundice or cholangitis, bile duct stones should be removed as soon as possible; in patients without biliary complications, emergency ERCP is neither beneficial nor cost-effective; if retained stones (without biliary complications) are suspected, they can be removed electively.     

Gallstone pancreatitis: When is endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography truly necessary?

Acute pancreatitis is an inflammation of the pancreas that can, in a minority of patients, lead to local complications, multiorgan failure, and death. Gallstones are the most common cause of acute pancreatitis in Western countries. The majority of patients with acute gallstone pancreatitis have mild disease and recover within 3 to 5 days with bed rest and intravenous fluid replacement. In up to 20% of patients, severe pancreatitis develops and can involve pancreatic tissue necrosis and multiorgan failure. Recent advances in the care of patients with gallstone-induced pancreatitis include better severity stratification on hospital admission, more aggressive fluid resuscitation in the early disease course, early use of antibiotics in patients with pancreatic necrosis, a shift from parenteral to enteral feeding regimens, a better defined and less aggressive approach to pancreatic surgery, and the possibility to remove impacted gallstones endoscopically. Urgent endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography and sphincterotomy are recommended in patients with signs of cholangitis or jaundice, ultrasound evidence of dilated common bile duct, or evidence of severe disease.