Chronic kidney disease perspectives in Japan and the importance of urinalysis screening

There are racial differences in primary renal diseases for end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and the incidence and prevalence of cardiovascular disease (CVD). To reduce the number of patients with both ESRD and CVD, an effective screening method for CKD should be established. In Japan, screening with the urine dip-stick test for proteinuria has been used since 1972 targeting every child and worker and since 1983 for every resident over 40 years old. There are several reasons for continuing this screening program. First, the positive rate of proteinuria is high in the Japanese general population, especially subjects with neither hypertension nor diabetes. Most of these subjects have no symptoms, and the only sign of renal disease is asymptomatic urinary abnormalities. Second, the prevalence and incidence of glomerulonephritis, especially IgA nephropathy, are high in the Japanese and Asian races, and urinalysis is the only method for early detection of chronic glomerulonephritis. Third, 10-year survival of the ESRD patients due to glomerulonephritis was approximately twice that of ESRD patients due to diabetes and nephrosclerosis. Consequently, reducing the incidence of ESRD due to glomerulonephritis is one of the best ways to reduce the prevalence of ESRD. Furthermore, higher incidence of ESRD in Asian races than in Caucasians was reported. Proteinuria is known to be the best predictor for reducing renal function, and the urine dip-stick test for proteinuria is less expensive and is cost-effective. For an effective screening strategy to reduce the ESRD population in Japanese and Asians, universal screening with the urine dip-stick test for proteinuria could be one solution.     

Different regional dynamics of end-stage renal disease in Japan by different causes

BACKGROUND: We recently showed that there were clear regional differences in the dynamics of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) within Japan, which has an ethnically homogenous population. We speculate on the reason for these regional differences by correlating the regional distributions in the incidence of ESRD due to each of the following individual causes of ESRD: chronic glomerulonephritis (CGN), diabetic nephropathy (DMN) and polycystic kidney disease (PKD). METHODS: The number of ESRD patients entering maintenance dialysis therapy due to individual causes of renal disease in each prefecture was reported annually for a 6-year period by the Japanese Society for Dialysis Therapy. After combining data from several prefectures into 11 geopolitical regions in Japan, the mean annual incidence of ESRD across the 11 regions was correlated among the three causes of ESRD. RESULTS: There were significant regional differences in the incidence of ESRD due to CGN (P<0.0001) and DMN (P=0.0015), the distributions of which were similar to each other across the 11 regions. In contrast, no regional differences were found in the incidence of ESRD due to PKD (P=0.6) as the major genetic disorder of the kidneys, suggesting that genetic backgrounds are relatively uniform throughout Japan. The regional distributions due to PKD were not correlated with those due to other causes: CGN and DMN. CONCLUSION: Risk factors common to nephropathy progression, rather than an underlying disease incidence and genetic predisposition, might contribute to regional differences in the overall ESRD incidence in Japan. Other possibilities such as the prevalence of underlying diseases, and acceptance or rejection rates into treatment programmes must be considered further for better explanations.     

Epidemiology investigation of initial hemodialysis patients in Shanxi province during 2010-2011

Objective To investigate the incidence, primary disease and vascular access of the initial hemodialysis patients in Shanxi province during 2010-2011. Methods A total of 3434 chronic renal failure (CRF) patients starting their first-time hemodialysis in Shanxi province during 2010-2011 were surveyed. Their data were registered in Chinese national renal data system. All related data were collected from Chinese national renal data system. Results In Shanxi province, 1514 cases began hemodialysis in 2010 and the annual incidence was 46.62 per million people (pmp), 1920 cases began hemodialysis in 2011 and the annual incidence was 53.44 pmp. The most common causes of CRF in these hemodialysis patients were glomerulonephritis (62.4%), diabetic nephropathy (22.0%), and hypertensive nephrosclerosis (8.1%). The most popular vascular access in CRF patients at the beginning of hemodialysis was temporary central venous catheter (48.9%), then arteriovenous fistula (40.9%). Conclusions In Shanxi province, maintenance hemodialysis patients are increasing and there are more male patients. Main causes of ESRD patients on hemodialysis are chronic glomerulonephritis, diabetic nephropathy and hypertensive nephrosclerosis. The major vascular access of CRF patients at the beginning of hemodialysis is temporary central venous catheter, which indicates that delayed hemodialysis is still a glaring problem in Shanxi province.     

The incidence of treated end-stage renal disease in New Zealand Maori and Pacific Island people and in Indigenous Australians.

BACKGROUND: Although Indigenous Australians, New Zealand Maori and Pacific Island people comprise an unduly high proportion of patients treated for end-stage renal disease (ESRD) in the two countries, no population-based age- and disease-specific rates have been published. METHODS: From data provided to the Australia and New Zealand Dialysis and Transplant Registry (ANZDATA), truncated age- and sex-standardized incidence rates were calculated for treated ESRD due to all causes and by primary renal disease, in four broad age groups of Maori, Pacific Island people and all 'other' New Zealanders and Indigenous and non-indigenous Australians, for the period 1992-2001. RESULTS: The incidence of ESRD did not differ in persons aged 0-14 years. In adults, Maori and Pacific Island people had similar rates of ESRD, a little more than half those of Indigenous Australians except in persons aged 65 years and over in whom the rates were nearly equal, but two to ten times the rates in 'other' New Zealanders and non-indigenous Australians. The excess of ESRD in Indigenous Australians was due principally to type II diabetic nephropathy and glomerulonephritis (all common types except lupus nephritis), but was seen also in respect of type I diabetic nephropathy, hypertensive renal disease and analgesic nephropathy, while the excess in Maori and Pacific Island people was confined to type II diabetic nephropathy, hypertensive renal disease and glomerulonephritis (especially lupus nephritis and type I mesangiocapillary glomerulonephritis, but not mesangial IgA disease). CONCLUSIONS: The incidence and pattern of treated ESRD differs quantitatively and qualitatively between Maori, Pacific Island people and other New Zealanders, and Indigenous and non-indigenous Australians.     

Racial and ethnic differences in trends of end-stage renal disease: United States, 1995 to 2005

End-stage renal disease (ESRD) disproportionately affects racial/ethnic minority populations in the United States, whereas the prevalence of ESRD risk factors such as diabetes continues to increase. Using data from the US Renal Data System, we examined trends in ESRD incidence, including ESRD caused by diabetes or hypertension. We determined the total number of persons in the United States by race/ethnicity who began treatment during 1995 to 2005 for ESRD and for ESRD with diabetes or hypertension as the primary diagnosis. Incidence rates were calculated by using census data and age-adjusted based on the 2000 US standard population. Joinpoint regression was used to analyze trends. Overall, during 1995 to 2005, the age-adjusted ESRD incidence increased from 260.7 per million to 350.9 per million, but the rate of increase slowed from 1998 to 2005. In the 2000s, compared with the 1990s, the age-adjusted ESRD incidence has continued to increase but at a slower rate among whites and blacks and has decreased significantly among Native Americans, Asians, and Hispanics. The disparity gap in ESRD incidence between minority populations and whites narrowed during 1995 to 2005. Continued interventions to reduce the prevalence of ESRD risk factors are needed to decrease ESRD incidence.     

Proposal for mapping renal failure in Japan and its application for strategy to arrest endstage renal disease

Remarkable regional differences in the annual incidence of endstage renal disease (ESRD) was found within Japan, which has a relatively homogeneous ethnic composition. In addition, there existed no regional difference in the incidence of ESRD due to polycystic kidney disease, the major genetic disorder of the kidneys. These findings suggest that the presence of factors other than genetic disposition contribute to the differences. On the other hand, there were similar regional variations in the incidences of ESRD between two causes of ESRD: chronic glomerulonephritis and diabetic nephropathy. Because it is unlikely that the regional distribution of underlying disease incidence and the disease-specific progression rate would be similar for two different causes, this observation suggests that factors governing the progression rate, which operate commonly for all causes of ESRD but differ among regions, may play an important role in generating the regional differences. Finally, we examined regional differences in the amounts of inhibitors of the renin-angiotensin system used, especially angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, in our search for an explanation of the regional differences in ESRD dynamics. Among antihypertensive agents examined, only ACE inhibitors were negatively correlated with the annual incidence of ESRD. The renal protective effects of ACE inhibitors have been established by results with animal models of progressive nephropathy and by large-scale clinical trials. Our epidemiological results for Japan as a whole show the same protective effects still more convincingly from a different approach. It is not completely clear yet at present, however, how regional variations in the incidence of ESRD are generated. If we could identify in future the factors that contribute to the regional differences, strategies for the treatment of renal disease will become available from different angles. Thus, much effort will be encouraged for the further analysis of regional differences in ESRD dynamics. This article was presented as the Oshima Award memorial lecture at the 48th annual meeting of the Japanese Society of Nephrology, held at Yokohama, Japan, on June 24, 2005.     

Outcome study of renal biopsy patients in Okinawa, Japan

Here we report a community-based epidemiologic study of patients who received renal biopsy in Okinawa, Japan between 1967 and 1994. The total number of cases was 2832 (1395 men and 1437 women), and the mean (SD) age at biopsy was 30.0 (10.0) years (range 1.0 to 88.0 years). The most common clinical indications for renal biopsy were proteinuria/hematuria (46.7%), nephrotic syndrome (21.2%), acute glomerulonephritis (10.1%), and systemic lupus erythematosus (7.5%). Patients who received renal biopsy between 1985 and 1994 (N= 1480) were much less likely to have acute glomerulonephritis than patients treated between 1967 and 1984 (N= 1352); the rates of proteinuria/hematuria, renal failure, and diabetes mellitus were slightly higher in the later period. Okinawa patients who began dialysis between 1971 and 2000 (N= 5246) were also studied. Among them, a total of 468 patients (260 men and 208 women) began dialysis after renal biopsy. The cumulative incidence of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) among these patients was 17% in 17 years. Half of these patients developed ESRD in the 5.8 years after renal biopsy. Among the dialysis patients, the biopsy rate was 12.6% in chronic glomerulonephritis, 1.7% in diabetes mellitus, 2.6% in nephrosclerosis, and 52.1% in systemic lupus erythematosus. The diagnoses of primary renal diseases were primarily made clinically. The survival rate after starting dialysis therapy was slightly better in those with than in those without renal biopsy but this finding was not statistically significant (adjusted hazards ratio 0.855, 95% CI 0.711-1.028, P= 0.095). The clinical significance of renal biopsy, other than its provision of histologic evidence, remains to be shown.     

深圳单中心新发终末期肾脏疾病病因变化分析

目的 分析深圳单中心新发终末期肾脏疾病（end-stage renal disease,ESRD）患者病因变化。方法 收集首次诊断为ESRD患者853例的临床资料,分析其性别、年龄、病因等指标。结果 853例ESRD患者中,前3位病因分别为慢性肾小球。肾炎（占49．81％）、糖尿病肾脏病（占16．76％）和高血压性肾病（占8．79％）。女性糖尿病肾脏病所占比率明显高于男性（20．23％ VS 14．40％,P〈0．05）。在60～79岁患者中,糖尿病肾脏病已成为首位病因。结论 慢性。肾小球肾炎仍是ESRD的主要病因,比例无明显下降。糖尿病肾脏病比例略有增加,其中在60～79岁年龄组,已成为首位病因。     

新乡地区2012年维持性血液透析患者原发疾病调查

目的 了解新乡地区维持性血液透析患者原发疾病构成,为早期控制原发疾病、延缓肾功能进展提供依据.方法 收集2012年1月至3月新乡地区4家综合医院364例维持性血液透析3个月以上患者的临床资料,进行统计学分析不同原发疾病所占比例,与国内外不同地区、不同时期统计数据进行对比.结果（1）364例患者中慢性肾小球肾炎150例（占41.2％）,糖尿病肾脏疾病98例（占26.9％）,高血压肾损害43例（占11.8％）,多囊肾病19例（占5.2％）,梗阻性肾病14例（占3.8％）,风湿病6例（占1.6％）,血液病1例（占0.3％）,其他33例（占9.1％）;（2）与全国不同省份地区相比,尿毒症原发疾病前3位一致,仅有个别地区（2010年广州统计资料）显示糖尿病肾脏疾病比例已占据第1位,但不同地区的统计数据显示前3位原发病所占比例并不相同,说明尿毒症患者原发病疾病谱存在地区差异;（3）通过与1999年、2000年～2005年、2006年～2010年、2011年后不同时间段全国各地区透析登记资料对比,10余年来慢性肾小球肾炎、高血压肾损害所占比例没有统计学差异（P＞0.05）;而糖尿病肾脏疾病所占比例与1999年、2000年～2005年、2006年～2010年相比具统计学差异（P＜0.05）,与2011年后相比没有统计学差异（P＞0.05）,说明随着时间的推移,糖尿病肾脏疾病在尿毒症中所占比例发生了明显变化,尤其是近5年登记资料糖尿病肾脏疾病正在逐渐成为尿毒症患者的主力军.结论（1）目前新乡地区维持性血液透析患者原发疾病前3位为慢性肾小球肾炎、糖尿病肾脏疾病、高血压肾损害,与全国各地市统计数据基本相同;（2）过去和现在国内尿毒症患者仍以慢性肾小球肾炎占首位,但糖尿病肾脏疾病、高血压肾损害比例明显升高;（3）不同地区间疾病谱存在差异;（4）现阶段的工作重点需要向控制糖尿病、高血压转移,最终才能延缓终末期肾脏疾病人群.     

Impact of HLA on the Underlying Primary Diseases in Turkish Patients with End-Stage Renal Disease

The number of patients with end stage renal disease (ESRD) is increasing faster than the number of renal transplantations performed per year worldwide. Of the primary diseases leading to ESRD, diabetic nephropathy is the leading cause. The purpose of the present study is to investigate the association of HLA with the primary diseases leading to ESRD in Turkish patients. A total of 3230 individuals comprising 587 ESRD patients and 2643 healthy controls were enrolled into the study. Class I HLA-A, -B typing was performed by CDC method, while class II HLA-DRB1 typing was performed by low resolution PCR-SSP. We found a significant negative association between almost all A locus antigens and primary disease groups classified as chronic glomerulonephritis and hypertensive nephrosclerosis (p?<?0.05). HLA-B58 and HLA-DRB1*03 significantly correlated with amyloidosis and diabetic nephropathy, respectively. Determination of HLAs as risk factors for primary diseases leading to ESRD might be beneficial in preventing progression to ESRD and recurrence of the primary disease post-transplantation.     

Is there an epidemic of HIV Infection in the US ESRD program?

Surveys revealed increases in the prevalence of HIV-infected patients in the US end-stage renal disease (ESRD) program in the 1980s and early 1990s, with clustering in young black men 25 to 44 yr old. Since the availability of highly active antiretroviral therapy in 1996, the prognosis of HIV-infected patients has improved, and therapy has been shown to change the course of classic HIV-associated nephropathy. We used the United States Renal Data System database to determine if the incidence and prevalence of HIV-infected patients with renal disease has increased in the ESRD program, by means of principal diagnoses and comorbid AIDS-defining diagnoses.As the number of US patients living with AIDS increased 57% from 214,711 in 1995 to 337,017 in 2000, and the number of incident ESRD patients increased 29.9% from 72,827 to 94,602, the number of incident HIV-infected patients increased only by 3.5%, from 1133 to 1171. Over this time, the percentage of incident ESRD patients with HIV infection fell from 1.56% to 1.24%. Among black men 25 to 44 yr of age, HIV infection as a proportion of incident ESRD cases fell from 8.5% to 6.2% from 1995 to 2000. The incident rate per million of AIDS or HIV infection in black men aged 25 to 44 fell from 107 in 1995 to 78 per million in 2000. The incidence rate for HIV-infected women in the ESRD program rose 14% while it declined 7% in men. Almost 2000 HIV-infected women, or 28.8% of the population, have initiated therapy for ESRD with hemodialysis. The number of prevalent cases increased in absolute numbers 81.3% from 2687 to 4871 (0.90% to 1.16% of the ESRD program). One-year survival rates for HIV-infected incident ESRD patients increased from 53.1% to 67.1% from 1995 to 2000.Although these values may be underestimates because of underreporting due to confidentiality concerns and lack of biopsy confirmation, we conclude that although the prevalence of HIV infection is increasing in the US ESRD population, the increase as a proportion of the program is minimal and is due to better survival after development of renal failure. The incidence of HIV infection in the US ESRD program is stable. Highly active antiretroviral therapy may be responsible for the change in epidemiology of HIV infection in the US ESRD program.     

Geographic, ethnic, age-related and temporal variation in the incidence of end-stage renal disease in Europe, Canada and the Asia-Pacific region, 1998-2002.

BACKGROUND: Only unbiased estimates of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) incidence and trends are useful for disease control-identification of risk factors and measuring the effect of intervention. METHODS: Age- and sex-standardized incidences (with trends) were calculated for all-cause and diabetic/non-diabetic ESRD for persons aged 0-14, 15-29, 30-44 and 45-64 years in 13 populations identified geographically, and six populations identified by ethnicity. RESULTS: The incidence of ESRD varied most with age, ethnicity and prevalence of diabetes. All non-Europid populations had excess ESRD, chiefly due to rates of type 2 diabetic ESRD that were greater than accounted for by community prevalences of diabetes. Their rates of non-diabetic ESRD also were raised, with contributions from most common primary renal diseases except type 1 diabetic nephropathy and polycystic kidney disease. The ESRD rates generally were low, and more similar than different, in Europid populations, except for variable contributions from type 1 (high in Finland, Sweden, Denmark and Canada) and type 2 (high in Austria and Canada) diabetes. In Europid populations during 1998-2002, all-cause ESRD declined by 2% per year in persons aged 0-44 years, and all non-diabetic ESRD by a similar amount in persons aged 45-64 years, in whom diabetic ESRD had increased by 3% per year. CONCLUSIONS: Increased susceptibility to type 2 diabetes and to kidney disease progression characterizes excess ESRD in non-Europid peoples. The decline in all-cause ESRD in young persons, and non-diabetic ESRD in the middle-aged, probably reflects improving management of progressive renal disease.     

Chronological and regional differences of testicular cancer--epidemiological analysis of incidence in gunma prefecture and estimated data of national survey, and of death in Japan

PURPOSE: The incidence of testicular cancer is rare. However, it is a significant cancer in that it develops not only in old age but also in children and younger age. We investigated the epidemiological characteristics of testicular cancer in Japan, in order to elucidate its features and problems. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We surveyed hospitals and clinics in and around Gunma prefecture that treated patients with urologic diseases and reviewed the pathology records from 1985 to 1994, and calculated the annual age-adjusted incidence rates of testicular cancer. Incidence rates in Japan were taken from the estimates made by 'The Research Group for Population-based Cancer Registration in Japan'. The annual number of deaths, annual age-adjusted death rates from 1947 and 1998, the age-specific death rates and decrease rate of them, and the prefectural standardized mortality ratio (SMR) from 1973 and 1998 was calculated from the data reported by Ohno et al. and statistical tables kept in 'Statistics and Information Department, Minister's Secretariat, Ministry of Health and Welfare'. RESULTS: In Gunma Prefecture, the annual age-adjusted incidence rates tended to increase. In estimated data of national survey, it slightly increased from 1975-79 to 1980-84, and remained stable thereafter. The annual number of deaths and age-adjusted death rates tended to decrease from around 1980. The peak of age-specific death rates was seen in infants, age 20 to 40 and old age. The decrease in the age-specific death rate was prominent for age under 20 and old age, but not significant for age 25 to 34. Prefectures in which SMR was high (> or = 120) were distributed all over Japan, but prefectures in which SMR was low (< or = 80) were concentrated in western Japan. CONCLUSIONS: The annual number of deaths and age-adjusted death rates began to decrease from around 1980, which coincided with the time the clinical trial of cis-platinum began. More than 100 deaths of testicular cancer are reported even now, early diagnosis, early treatment, and improvement of treatment strategy to far-advanced cases are necessary.     

Trends and characteristics in prostate cancer mortality in Japan

BACKGROUND: In North America, the incidence and mortality of prostate cancer has been declining since the early 1990s. We calculated the age-adjusted death rates, age-specific death rates and standardized mortality ratio (SMR) for prostate cancer in Japan and analyzed their features. METHODS: Yearly age-adjusted death rates for prostate cancer were calculated by dividing the number of events by the population at risk, with direct standardization to the world population. Age-specific death rates were calculated for the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s and which age group showed the highest rate of increase was examined. The SMR in each prefecture was also calculated for each period. RESULTS: The respective number of deaths and the age-adjusted death rate was 1107 and 2.29 in 1973 and 6251 and 5.15 in 1997. The age-specific death rates showed an exponential increase with age in all three periods and the rate of increase was higher in older age groups. The distribution of SMR showed the same tendency in all three periods. The prefectures with significantly high or low SMR were distributed in clusters. CONCLUSIONS: The prostate cancer death rate is increasing rapidly in Japan. However, the age-adjusted death rate has remained stable from 1996 to 1997. How this figure will change and whether the prostate cancer death rate in Japan will begin to decline, like in North America, is of interest. The prefectures with significantly high or low SMR showed a characteristic clustered distribution pattern.     

Rate of change of end-stage renal disease treatment incidence 1978-1987--has there been selection?

End-stage renal disease (ESRD) treatment rates in the United States have increased steadily since 1973. Decreasing selection against elderly patients with a poor prognostic primary cause of ESRD (i.e., diabetic nephropathy) may partly account for this increase in rates. To test this hypothesis, we calculated log ESRD treatment incidence (ESRDI) rates by four major primary causes of ESRD (diabetic nephropathy (DN), hypertensive nephropathy (HN), glomerulonephritis (GN), and cystic kidney disease (PC); two age groups (old (O), greater than 65 and young (Y), 15 to 44 yr of age) for black and white, male and female, new ESRD patients from 1978 to 1987. As predicted, summary log ESRDI slopes (produced by analysis of covariance) occurred in the following decreasing order, ODN (0.19), OGN = OHN = YDN (0.134). YHN = YPC = YGN (in white patients) = slope not significantly different from 0. Log ESRDI slopes for young black males and females with GN increased significantly between 1978 and 1987, possibly as a result of an increased incidence of GN. In conclusion, decreasing selection may be a factor in the continuing increase in the U.S. ESRD population.     

The incidence of end-stage renal disease in India: a population-based study

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) are emerging public health problems in developing countries, and need changes in health-care policy. ESRD incidence data are not available from large parts of the developing world including South Asia. We report the ESRD incidence in a large urban population in India. ESRD incidence was estimated for four consecutive calendar years (2002-2005) among 572 029 subjects residing in 36 of the 56 wards of the city of Bhopal. These subjects are beneficiaries of free health care in a hospital established after the 1984 Union Carbide Industrial Accident. Crude and age-adjusted incidence rates were calculated. A total of 346 new ESRD patients were diagnosed during the study period; 86 in 2002, 82 in 2003, 85 in 2004, and 93 in 2005. Average crude and age-adjusted incidence rates were 151 and 232 per million population, respectively. The mean age was 47 years, and 58% were males. Diabetic nephropathy was the commonest (44%) cause of ESRD. This study provides the first population-based ESRD incidence data from India and reveals it to be higher than previously estimated. Diabetic nephropathy is the leading cause of ESRD. Changes are required in health-care policy for optimal care of CKD patients and efficient resource utilization for management of those with ESRD.     

Epidemiological study of the end stage renal disease patients in Gansu province

Objective To investigate the clinical features and treatment of the end stage renal disease (ESRD) patients in Gansu province. Methods Based on the Chinese national renal data system, the investigation and analysis were made on the epidemiological literature of ESRD patients in 22 hospitals of Gansu from 2012 to 2013 by retrospective investigation. Results (1) In Gansu, the number of living ESRD patients was 4379, the point prevalence rate of ESRD was 169.6 per million. Their average age was (47.46±15.57) years, 30 to 59 years old patients accounted for 70.0%, and the male-female ratio was 1:1.15. The prevalence rate was higher in less-educated population and manual laborers. (2) As the leading cause of ESRD, chronic glomerulonephritis accounted for 43.0%, followed by diabetic nephropathy (31.0%), hypertensive nephropathy (11.0%) and allergic diseases (6.9%). (3) The current treatment of ESRD: 51.2% of the patients received hemodialysis, 4.4% received peritoneal dialysis, 1.1% received renal transplantation, 32.2% received no treatment, and 11.1% died. (4) The causes of patients not taking dialytic treatments: economic reasons accounted for 61.0%, lack of blood dialytic conditions accounted for 24.0%, patients ceasing treatment accounted for 3.1%, family factors accounted for 2.3%, religious reasons accounted for 1.8%, other reasons accounted for 7.8%. Conclusions The point prevalence rate of ESRD in Gansu was 169.6 per million. 30 to 59 years old patients were the main population. The major cause of ESRD was chronic glomerulonephritis, followed by diabetic nephropathy and hypertensive nephropathy. 32.2% of ESRD patients did not receive any renal replacement therapy, which was caused mainly by economic difficulties and the lack of dialytic equipments.     

温州市1999-2006年血液透析状况及其变化调查

目的 了解温州市1999-2006年血液透析状况及其变化。 方法 收集1999年1月至2006年12月温州市18家医院血液透析中心的数据，回顾性研究温州市终末期肾脏疾病（ESRD）血液透析(HD)患者发病人数、患病人数和死亡人数，原发疾病构成及其相关因素的变迁。 结果 温州市血液透析患者年发病人数、患病人数逐年增加，年死亡人数相对稳定。各年度患者男性均多于女性，但男女比例有逐年下降趋势；青年组、老年组有增长趋势。慢性肾炎导致的ESRD的比例虽然在逐年下降，但仍然是ESRD血液透析的主要病因。糖尿病和高血压所占比例在逐年上升。血液透析患者透析龄的构成比，1~2年组逐年下降，<1年、2~3年、3~4年组均相对稳定，4~5年、5~10年、>10年组均呈增长趋势。肾移植及改作腹膜透析人数逐年均有所增长。心血管事件居死因之首,占19.9%；第2、3位为脑血管意外与全身衰竭，各占10.8%；第4位为出血性疾病，占4.7%；第5位为感染性疾病，占4.3%。1999-2006年心血管、脑血管事件构成比均相对稳定；全身衰竭、出血性疾病则波动较大；感染、营养不良所占比例有下降趋势。 结论 温州市血液透析患者数量在逐年增加，呈年轻化和老年化趋势现象。慢性肾炎仍然是主要病因，糖尿病和高血压所占比例在逐年上升。血液透析患者长期存活率逐年提高。首要死亡原因为心血管事件。     

Comparative incidence rates of end-stage renal disease treatment by state

End-stage renal disease (ESRD) treatment rates vary significantly between states in the United States. Much of this variation relates to the much higher rate of ESRD in blacks and the differences in race, age, and sex composition of various states. Even after adjusting for race, age, and sex differences utilizing data from new patients reported to Medicare with ESRD between 1980 and 1983, marked variation in treatment incidence rates per million population were still present. Overall rates varied from 45 in North Dakota to 99 in New Jersey. Regional rate patterns were demonstrated with very high rates in southwestern states (Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California: 87-91/million). In contrast, several south-central states had lower rates (Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Tennessee: 66-75/million). By state the rates for blacks were consistently higher than for whites. After adjustment for sex and age differences, the rates for blacks varied from 125 in Arkansas to 242 in New Jersey. Several north-eastern states (Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Jersey) had higher rates of ESRD in blacks (197-242 million) as compared with several south-central states (Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, Alabama) where rates varied from 125 to 180 million. ESRD rates by primary etiologies by state showed marked variation of the major primary etiologies of ESRD: diabetic nephropathy rates were most predictive of overall ESRD rates, with much higher rates in the southwestern states (28.1-33.2) as compared with the south-central states (12.8-16.3).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Halting the progression of chronic nephropathy

The incidence of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) is increasing worldwide. In the United States alone, there were 372,000 patients requiring renal replacement therapy in the year 2000 and is expected to rise to 650,000 by the year 2010. The trends in Europe and Japan are forecasted to follow a similar path. These increases represent a significant burden to countries worldwide; not only due to the financial costs of providing ESRD care, but also because of lost productivity and significant morbidity and mortality for the affected patients. There is clearly a pressing need for the aggressive identification and early treatment of patients with nephropathy to prevent progression to ESRD. Research in the last 25 yr has made great advances in the understanding of the progression of chronic renal disease in diabetic and nondiabetic proteinuric nephropathy. There are now effective treatment options that can slow the progression of chronic nephropathies in many individuals, and ongoing research has raised the tantalizing prospect of the reversal of renal disease progression.