Reconstruction of Lateral Skull Base Defects with Radial Forearm Free Flaps: The Double-Layer Technique

Introduction The radial forearm flap has fallen out of favor in lateral skull base reconstruction in recent literature. However, especially when used in a double layer, a radial forearm may be able to provide the thickness of a large flap while taking advantage of the pliability for which the flap is renowned. Objective To report the results of the double-layer technique of radial forearm free flap reconstruction of lateral temporal bone defects. Design A retrospective chart review. Setting A tertiary care institution. Participants All consecutive patients who underwent lateral temporal bone resections and were reconstructed with free flaps from 2006 to 2012. Major Outcome Measures Flap success rate, complications, and rate of revision surgery. Results A total of 17 patients were identified with free flap reconstruction of the lateral skull base. Seven received reconstruction with a double-layer radial forearm flap. Reconstruction-related complications in this group included one case of facial cellulitis. The flap success rate was 100%. These results were comparable with patients who had other flaps. Conclusions The radial forearm free flap may be an effective reconstruction option for lateral temporal bone defects especially when used in the double-layer technique.     

The Extended Nasoseptal Flap for Skull Base Reconstruction of the Clival Region: An Anatomical and Radiological Study

Objective Reconstruction of large clival defects after an endoscopic endonasal procedure is challenging. The objective is to analyze the morphology, indications, and limitations of the extended nasoseptal flap, which adds the nasal floor and inferior meatus mucosa, compared with the standard nasoseptal flap, for clival reconstruction. Design Twenty-seven sides of formalin-fixed anatomical specimens and 13 computed tomography (CT) scans were used. Under 0-degree endoscopic visualization, a standard flap on one side and an extended flap on the other side were performed, as well as exposure of the sella, cavernous sinus, and clival dura mater. Coverage of both flaps was assessed, and they were incised and extracted for measurements. Results The extended flap has two parts: septal and inferior meatal. The extended flaps are 20 mm longer and add 774 mm² of mucosal area. They cover a clival defect from tuberculum to foramen magnum in 66.6% cases and from below the sella in 91.6%. They cover both parasellar and paraclival segments of the internal carotid arteries. The lateral inferior limits are the medial aspect of the hypoglossal canals and Eustachian tubes. CT scans can predict the need or limitation of an extended nasoseptal flap. Conclusions The nasal floor and inferior meatus mucosa adds a significant area for reconstruction of the clivus. A defect laterally beyond the hypoglossal canals is not likely covered with this variation of the flap. Preoperative CT scans are useful to guide the reconstruction techniques.     

Pedicled Chimeric Perforator Flap Based on Inferior Gluteal Vessel Axis for the Reconstruction of Stage-Four Primary Ischial Pressure Sores—A New Design

Background  “Subfascial void reconstruction” in ischial pressure sores (IPSs) goes a long way in the amelioration of the common complications like persistent drainage, infection, wound dehiscence, and late recurrence. No locoregional flaps suffice this requirement. So we have designed a chimeric pedicled flap based on the inferior gluteal vessel axis (IGVA) perforators with two tissue components: (1) Pacman-style fasciocutaneous flap on a perforator and (2) gluteus maximus muscle (inferior portion) on another independent perforator. Aim and Methods  After confirming the feasibility of novel design of chimeric pedicled IGVA perforator flap with cadaver study, we embarked on the clinical study with this chimeric flap. In this prospective cohort study, the study and the control existed in the same patient so that the biological factors affecting the wound healing would be the same. Results  Twenty-one patients were included whose mean age was 39 years. Late recurrence occurred in one patient (4.8%) of chimeric flap while the control group (who had undergone conventional reconstruction) had recurrence in 11 patients (52.4%). On assessment with overall institutional score, grade A was observed in 18 patients of the chimeric IGVA flap group ( p < 0.045), and in only 3 patients of the control group. Conclusions  This anatomically construed flap, a new addendum in the armamentarium of reconstruction of IPSs, with its potential to congruently fill the ischiogluteal subfascial void may provide a lasting solution for preventing recurrences.     

Extended Inferior Turbinate Flap for Endoscopic Reconstruction of Skull Base Defects

Objective When the use of the nasoseptal flap for endoscopic skull base reconstruction has been precluded, the posterior pedicle inferior turbinate flap is a viable option for small midclival defects. Limitations of the inferior turbinate flap include its small surface area and limited arc of rotation. We describe a novel extended inferior turbinate flap that expands the reconstructive applications of this flap. Design Cadaveric anatomical study. Participants Cadaveric specimens. Main Outcome Measures Flap size, arc of rotation, and reconstructive applications were assessed. Results The average width of the flap was 5.46 ± 0.58 cm (7.32 ± 0.59 cm with septal mucosa). The average length of the flap was 5.01 ± 0.58 cm (5.28 ± 0.37 cm with septal mucosa). The average surface area of the flap was ∼ 27.26 ± 3.65 cm² (40.53 ± 6.45 cm² with septal mucosa). The extended inferior turbinate flap was sufficient to cover clival defects extending between the paraclival internal carotid arteries. The use of the flap in 22 cadavers and 5 clinical patients is described. Conclusion The extended inferior turbinate flap presents an additional option for reconstruction of skull base defects when the nasoseptal flap is unavailable.     

颏下动脉蒂岛状瓣修复下颜面部皮肤软组织缺损

目的：探讨颏下动脉蒂岛状皮瓣修复下颜面部皮肤软组织缺损的可行性及优越性。方法：对16例多种病变切除后所造成的下颜面部皮肤软组织缺损，设计以颏下动脉为蒂的岛状皮瓣进行修复。结果：16例被修复的患者术后皮瓣完全成活。术后随访1—2年，所有患者对术区外观感到满意，无再度挛缩显现发生。结论：颏下动脉蒂岛状瓣具有下颜面部组织类似的特性，颜色、质地好，供区隐蔽，手术操作相对简单，安全、快速，是修复下颜面部皮肤软组织缺损的较好方法。     

Modifications to the Endoscopic Approach for Anterior Skull Base Lesions Improve Postoperative Sinonasal Symptoms

Background/Objective Our institution previously showed that patients experience significant postoperative sinonasal symptoms for the first few months after endoscopic transnasal transsphenoidal skull base surgery (eTNTS). Since our initial study we have modified our technique, discontinuing routine resection of the middle turbinate, maxillary antrostomies, and nasoseptal flaps. In this study, we analyze whether these technical modifications decrease postoperative sinonasal morbidity after eTNTS. Methods A retrospective review was performed of 93 consecutive patients who underwent eTNTS at a tertiary academic medical center from August 2011 to August 2012. Main Outcome Measures  Sino-Nasal Outcome Test (SNOT)-20 and SNOT-22 scores preoperatively and after surgery. Results Compared with our previous study, our new cohort experienced a significant improvement (p < 0.05) in SNOT scores for the need to blow nose, runny nose, postnasal discharge, thick nasal discharge, wake up at night, reduced concentration, and frustrated/restless/irritable. Within the new cohort, patients who did not have a nasoseptal flap or middle turbinate resection had less worsening and faster improvement of nasal symptom scores after surgery. Conclusions Preserving normal sinonasal physiology during eTNTS by limiting middle turbinate resections, avoiding unnecessary maxillary antrostomies, and reducing the use of nasoseptal flaps when feasible results in less sinonasal morbidity and more rapid recovery during the postoperative period.     

逆行腓浅血管筋膜蒂皮瓣修复小腿中下段软组织缺损

目的探讨采用逆行腓浅血管筋膜蒂皮瓣修复小腿中下段软组织缺损的临床效果。方法对10例小腿中下段软组织缺损患者(缺损面积5 mm×3 cm~8 cm×6 cm)采用逆行腓浅血管筋膜蒂皮瓣移位治疗。结果术后皮瓣完全成活。患者均获随访,时间3周~2年,皮瓣外形满意,质地良好。结论逆行腓浅血管筋膜蒂皮瓣血供可靠,切取方便,不牺牲主干血管,基本可满足小腿中下段创伤修复的需要,临床疗效满意。     

Computed Tomographic Exploration of the Middle Ethmoidal Artery

Objectives The integral involvement of sinus and skull base surgeries in the field of otolaryngology makes the endonasal vasculature including the ethmoidal arteries important to consider. The anterior ethmoidal artery (AEA) and posterior ethmoidal artery (PEA) are well-known entities, yet the relatively recent notion of accessory or middle ethmoidal vessels complicates our understanding of this arterial system. Study Design Radiographic study. Methods Fifty computed tomographic angiographies were studied for the presence of accessory/middle ethmoidal arteries (MEAs). If contrasted arteries were not visualized reliably, foramina were accepted as evidence of arteries. The accessory arteries/foramina were then compared with the locations of the AEA and PEA. Results A total of 19 of the 50 patient samples studied had evidence of a right, left, or bilateral middle ethmoidal vessels (38%). Overall, 26 arteries total were identified out of the 100 sides (26%). Unilateral middle arteries were more common than bilateral, and right sided were more common than left. There was no evidence of multiple MEAs on a given side. Conclusion The endonasal surgeon must be cognizant of the possible presence of MEAs. These arteries should be considered when working in the medial orbit and anterior skull base region.     

Evaluation of Role of Arterialization of Venous Flaps in Abdomen in Rats

Introduction  Reconstruction forms the primary tenet in plastic surgery. Venous flaps are a known option but the survival is limited. Arterialization of venous flap can enhance its survival. While various techniques of arterialization of venous flaps are described, there are very few studies comparing them. Material and methods  The current study was conducted among 34 rats weighing 160 to 200 grams. The rats were divided into four groups. Group I—islanded epigastric flap was raised with superficial caudal epigastric vessels as pedicle. Group II—arterialized flow through venous flap was raised with superficial caudal epigastric vein (SCEV) as afferent and lateral thoracic vein as drainage vein. Side-to-side anastomosis was done between femoral artery and vein, lateral to the origin of superficial caudal epigastric artery. Group III—after raising the flap, as in group II, femoral vein was ligated proximal to superficial caudal epigastric vessels. Group IV—an arterialized flow through venous flap was raised with superficial caudal epigastric vein as afferent and lateral thoracic vein as drainage vein. End-to-side anastomosis was done between femoral artery and superficial caudal epigastric vein. Animals that died before completion of the study were excluded. The color changes of flaps were noted. Flap survival was expressed as a percentage of the total flap surface area. The patency of anastomosis was seen on postoperative day 5. Results  There was no total flap failure. On statical analysis, the flap survival area on day 5 between Group I and Group IV was not significant ( p value 0.431). The survival area in Group I (78.85 ± 10.54%) was comparable to Group IV (65.71 ± 20.70%). Group II and III had poor results as compared with Group I. In four rats, thrombosis of arteriovenous anastomosis was noted with flap survival area of 30 to 33%. Conclusion  It was noted that epigastric venous flaps with end-to-side anastomosis between femoral artery and superficial caudal epigastric vein (group IV) have survival area comparable to islanded flaps.     

Radiologic Assessment of the Paranasal Sinuses after Endoscopic Skull Base Surgery

Objectives To identify sinuses demonstrating postoperative radiographic mucosal thickening after endoscopic exposure of the cranial base through the transsphenoidal corridor. Design Retrospective review. Setting University-based medical center. Participants Patients undergoing endoscopic transnasal transsphenoidal approaches to the skull base who had both preoperative and postoperative imaging. Main Outcome Measures Change in preoperative and postoperative imaging scores for each sinus and side at 3 and 6 months. The left-sided undissected sinuses served as internal controls for comparison. Results Fifty-one patients were identified with the aforementioned inclusion and exclusion criteria. The mean difference in preoperative and postoperative imaging scores for the right anterior ethmoid sinus was significantly different from the left-sided equivalents (p = 0.0020). The difference in the frontal sinuses approached significance (p = 0.0625). Conclusions Resection of the lower half of the middle turbinate and maxillary antrostomy and harvest of a nasoseptal flap are associated with an increased radiographic incidence of mucosal thickening of the ipsilateral anterior ethmoids compared with the undissected contralateral side. When accessing the transnasal transsphenoidal corridor for skull base surgery, preservation of native anatomy is associated with a lower incidence of mucosal thickening on postoperative imaging.     

Variability of the Middle Meningeal Artery Subject to the Shape of Skull

Objectives Endovascular embolization of the middle meningeal artery (MMA) is currently considered one of the basic methods to treat acute bleeding and a posttraumatic aneurysm. The present research correlates the morphological characteristics of the MMA with individual skull shape. Design A prospective cohort study. Setting Hospital of University of Jordan (Amman, Jordan) from 2012 to 2013. Participants A total of 50 patients without known vascular pathology in the carotid system underwent routine magnetic resonance angiography examination of the head and neck. Main Outcome Measures The length and outer diameter of extracranial, intraosseous, and intracranial segments of the MMA were measured in patients with dolichocephalic, mesocephalic, and brachycephalic types of skulls. Results The brachycephalic patients have the most inauspicious anatomical precondition for endovascular intervention of the MMA due to the narrowest lumen of the vessel, high probability of a tortuous extracranial part, and pronounced inflexion at the transmission of the intraosseous segment to the intracranial one. Conclusions The morphological characteristics of the MMA have a close correlation with individual skull shape.     

Impact of Chemoradiotherapy on CSF Leak Repair after Skull Base Surgery

Background Transnasal endoscopic resection (TER) has become the treatment of choice for many skull base tumors. A major limitation of TER is the management of large dural defects and the need for repair of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leaks, particularly among patients who are treated with chemotherapy (CTX) or radiotherapy (RT). The objective of this study is to determine the impact of CTX and RT on the success of CSF leak repair after TER. Methods We performed a retrospective chart review of a single-institution experience of TER from 1992 to 2011. Results We identified 28 patients who had endoscopic CSF leak repair after resection of malignant skull base tumors. Preoperative RT was utilized in 18 patients, and 9 had undergone CTX. All patients required CSF leak repair with rotational flaps after cribriform and/or dural resection. CSF leak repair failed in three patients (11%). A history of RT or CTX was not associated with failed CSF leak repair. Conclusion Adjuvant or neoadjuvant CTX or RT is not associated with failed CSF leak repair. Successful CSF leak repair can be performed in patients with malignant skull base tumors with an acceptable risk profile.     

Microsurgical Relations between Internal Carotid Artery–Posterior Communicating Artery (ICA-PComA) Segment Aneurysms and Skull Base: An Anatomoclinical Study

Purpose The study of the clinical, anatomic, imaging, and microsurgical characteristics of the aneurysms of the internal carotid-posterior communicating artery (ICA-PComA) segment and their relationships with the skull base structures.Methods The anatomic relationships of PComA with neurovascular elements and skull base structures were studied in cadavers. The clinical, imaging, and microsurgical findings of 84 microsurgically treated ICA-PComA aneurysms compiled in a prospective database were reviewed.Results The most important anatomic relations of the PComA and ICA-PComA aneurysms are with the oculomotor nerve around the oculomotor triangle that forms the roof of the cavernous sinus. Aneurysms of the ICA-PComA are classified according to the orientation of the aneurysmal sac in infratentorial, supratentorial, and tentorial. Infratentorial aneurysms frequently present with subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) and oculomotor nerve paralysis. They have relations with skull base structures that often make it necessary to totally or partially resect the anterior clinoid process (6.7%) or anterior petroclinoid dural fold (15%). Supratentorial aneurysms course with SAH and without oculomotor nerve involvement, but they often are associated with intracranial hematoma.Conclusion ICA-PComA aneurysms have complex anatomic relations. The orientation of the aneurysmal fundus induces relevant differences in the anatomic relations, clinical presentation, and microsurgical approach to ICA-PComA aneurysms.     

An Innovative Skin Simulation Model to Augment Competency-based Training in Facial Plastic Surgery

Introduction  Competency-based medical education (CBME) approach in the medical curriculum has been introduced globally with the goal of providing flexibility, accountability, and learner-centeredness among medical learners. Traditional surgical skill training in most places has relied on “see one, do one, teach one model,” while simulation model-based training has been shown to improve competencies in surgical trainees. We wanted to assess the usefulness of a hydrophilic barrier adhesive foam wound dressing as a novel skin simulation model for learning biomechanics and practice of cutaneous flaps among plastic surgical resident trainees at our institute. Materials and Methods  An absorbent, soft polyurethane foam pad located centrally upon a larger polyurethane membrane, coated with a hydrocolloid adhesive, forming an island dressing, was used as a simulation model for this study. It was obtained from the hospital store either after or nearing their expiry dates of clinical use. Plastic surgery residents in different years of training were invited to participate in a simulation workshop, using this novel model, and give their feedback. Results  Seventeen residents in different plastic surgery training levels participated in the workshop and gave their feedback on the skin flap simulation model. The simulation model received extremely high (100%) scores on two parameters, namely, utility for flap and suture practice and high scores (88%–94%) for texture, ability to mark, and improving confidence among trainees. Conclusions  Adhesive bilayer polyurethane foam can be used as a novel cutaneous skin flap simulation model for understanding the biomechanics of skin flaps and cutaneous flap practice.     

Combined Subgaleal/Myocutaneous Technique for Temporalis Muscle Dissection

Background The frontal branch of the facial nerve (FBFN) is the most susceptible neural structure to injury during frontotemporal craniotomies. The balance between adequate temporalis muscle mobilization and frontal branch protection with minimal anatomical alteration is the philosophy behind our approach to temporalis muscle dissection.Objective To describe a combined subgaleal/myocutaneous technique for dissection and mobilization of the temporalis muscle in anterolateral cranial approaches.Methods Interdisciplinary literature review of the anatomical course of the FBFN was performed. Retrospective analysis of anterolateral craniotomies performed at our institution in which the combined subgaleal/myocutaneous (CSGMC) technique was performed.Results A total of 71 cases of anterolateral craniotomies (excluding full variant orbitozygomatic) were performed with the successful application of a CSGMC technique (36 pterional, 31 orbitopterional, and 4 fronto-orbital). Partial frontalis weakness was transient in one case.Conclusion The CSGMC technique provides sufficient protection for the FBFN and allows for adequate mobilization for a variety of skull base exposures while minimally violating myofascial anatomy. This is the first reported technique that allows both adequate temporalis muscle mobilization with performance of the one-piece orbitofrontal and orbitopterional approaches, without disruption of the superficial/deep temporalis fascia and fat-pad complex.     

Contralateral unaffected breast augmentation using zone IV as a SIEA flap during unilateral DIEP flap breast reconstruction

BackgroundContralateral breast augmentation during unilateral breast reconstruction is a good option for women with small breasts. In patients with adequate lower abdominal tissues, the deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap is often the first choice for unilateral autologous breast reconstruction. We use Zone IV, which is usually excised owing to its insufficient blood circulation, as a superficial inferior epigastric artery (SIEA) flap for contralateral breast augmentation.MethodsBetween October 2004 and January 2016, 32 patients underwent unilateral breast reconstruction using a DIEP flap and an attempted simultaneous contralateral breast augmentation with an SIEA flap. The unilateral DIEP flap attached to the contralateral SIEA flap was split into two separate flaps after indocyanine green angiography. In all patients, ipsilateral internal mammary vessels were used as recipient vessels for DIEP flap breast reconstruction. The SIEA flap pedicle was anastomosed to several branches of the deep inferior epigastric vessels. The SIEA flap was inset beneath the contralateral breast through the midline.ResultsOf 32 patients, 27 underwent DIEP flap breast reconstruction and simultaneous unaffected breast augmentation using 25 SIEA or 2 superficial circumflex iliac artery perforator (SCIP) flaps. All DIEP flaps survived, and total necrosis occurred in one SIEA flap. The mean weight of the final inset for DIEP flap reconstruction and SIEA or SCIP flap augmentation was 416 g and 112 g, respectively.ConclusionsUnilateral DIEP flap breast reconstruction and contralateral SIEA flap breast augmentation may be safely performed with satisfactory results.     

The Pursuit of a Cholesteatoma by Harvey Cushing: Staged Approach to a Complex Skull Base Tumor

Objective The evolution of neurosurgical techniques during Harvey Cushing''s practice was immense. The authors illustrate this evolution using archived historical records from Harvey Cushing. Setting Historical patient records retained by the Cushing Center at Yale University Department of Neurosurgery. Design The authors present the case of one of Cushing''s patients with a cholesteatoma. Results Cushing''s surgical treatment of a cholesteatoma extending into the skull base is an example of his meticulous documentation and accelerated surgical techniques. Conclusions This case demonstrates how neurosurgical techniques advanced in the management of complex skull base tumors via a staged approach through the middle and posterior fossae at a time long before the development of modern skull base surgery.     

Reverse flow facial artery as recipient vessel for perforator flaps

In perforator flaps, anastomosis between flap and recipient vessels in the neck area is often difficult due to small vessel diameter and short pedicle. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the retrograde flow of the distal, paramandibular part of the facial artery would provide sufficient pressure and size to perfuse perforator flaps. Before and after occlusion of the contralateral facial artery, retrograde and anterograde arterial pressure was measured on both sides of the facial artery in 50 patients. The values were compared with the mean systemic arterial pressure. Diameters of facial arteries in the paramandibular region and perforator flap vessels were evaluated by morphometry. Arterial pressure in the distal facial artery with retrograde flow was 76% of the systemic arterial pressure. The latter equaled approximately the anterograde arterial pressure in the proximal end of the facial artery. Mean arterial pressure of the facial arteries decreased after proximal occlusion of the contralateral facial artery, which was not significant (P = 0.09). Mean diameter of the distal facial arteries in the mandibular region was 1.6 mm (range 1.3–2.2 mm; standard deviation 0.3 mm; n = 50), that of the perforator flap arteries 1.3 mm (0.9–2.6 mm; 0.4 mm; n = 20). Facial arteries, based on reverse flow, successfully supported all 20 perforator flaps. Retrograde pulsatile flow in the distal facial artery sustains perforator flaps even if the contralateral facial artery is occluded. Proximity of the distal facial arteries to the defect compensates for short pedicles. Matching diameters of the arteries are ideal for end‐to‐end anastomosis. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc. Microsurgery, 2009.     

颞浅动脉为蒂的岛状皮瓣一期修复巨大头皮及颅骨缺损

目的探讨应用颞浅动脉为蒂的岛状皮瓣，如全额皮瓣、颞枕皮瓣，一期修复头皮及颅骨缺损，在切除头皮、颅骨病灶的同时，行组织缺损修复，缩短病程。方法全额皮瓣除包含有颞浅动脉支外，还包括同侧耳后动脉在内。颢枕皮瓣是以颢浅动脉和枕动脉为蒂的纵跨同侧颞枕区的长头皮瓣。行头皮颅骨病灶彻底切除，以岛状皮瓣修复缺损，供区中厚皮片移植。结果本组共7例，皮瓣移植均成活，供区一期修复，术后随访3-12个月，外形恢复满意。结论该术式对头皮颅骨慢性溃疡、鳞状细胞癌病灶切除等造成的头皮及颅骨缺损，可一期修复。皮瓣邻近取材，修复范围大，皮瓣设计灵活，切取方便，血供可靠，治疗周期短，是一种修复头皮、颅骨缺损的较好的方法。