Causes of delay in diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis in patients attending a referral hospital in Western Kenya

OBJECTIVE: To determine the length of delays from onset of symptoms to initiation of treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB). DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Chest/TB clinic, Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital (MTRH), Eldoret, Kenya. SUBJECTS: Newly diagnosed smear positive pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) patients. RESULTS: Two hundred and thirty patients aged between 12 and 80 (median; 28.5) years were included in the study. They comprised 148 (64.3%, median 30 years) males and 82 (35.7%, median 28 years) females. One hundred and two (44%) came from urban and 128 (56%) came from rural setting covering a median distance of 10 (range 0-100) kilometres and paying Kshs 20 (range 0-200) to facility. Cough was the commonest symptom reported by 228 (99.1%) of the patients followed by chest pain in 214 (80%). The mean patient delay was 11 +/- 17 weeks (range: 1-78 weeks) with no significant difference between males and females, the mean system delay was 3 +/- 5 weeks (range: 0-39 weeks). The median patient, health systems and total delays were 42, 2, and 44 days respectively for all the patients. Marital status, being knowledgeable about TB, distance to clinic and where help is sought first had significant effect on patient delay. CONCLUSION: Patient delay is the major contributor to delay in diagnosis and initiation of treatment of PTB among our patients. Therefore TB control programmes in this region must emphasise patient education regarding symptoms of tuberculosis and timely health seeking behaviour.     

PCR-SSCP分支杆菌菌种初步鉴定方法的建立及其应用

目的：建立一种简便、快速、灵敏和特异的分支杆菌菌种鉴定方法。方法：通过聚合酶链反应（Ｐｏｌｙｍｅｒａｓｅ Ｃｈａｉｎ Ｒｅａｃｔｉｏｎ,ＰＣＲ）－单链构象多态性（Ｓｕｉｎｇｌｅ－ｓｔｒｎｄｅｄ Ｃｏｎｆｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎ Ｐｌｏｙｍｏｒｐｈｉｓｍ,ＳＳＣＰ）方法分析分枝杆菌１６ＳｒＲＮＡ,根据其电泳图谱与标准株的相似性进行菌种初步鉴定。结果：２９种分支杆菌标准株中,除结接分支杆菌、牛结核分支杆菌和卡     

Contribution of refractive errors to visual impairment in patients at korle-bu teaching hospital

Summary OBJECTIVE: To determine the contribution of refractive error to visual impairment in visually impaired patients attending Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital, Ghana. METHOD: This study was conducted over a period of 1 year beginning October 2002 at Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital. Every 4th consecutive new case attending the eye clinic, aged 6 years and above was selected and interviewed using a structured questionnaire. A Snellen's chart was used to determine the unaided visual acuity, visual acuity with spectacles where the patient was wearing one, and visual acuity with pin hole with or without spectacles. Improvement in visual acuity by 2 or more lines on the Snellen's chart when looking through the pin hole was regarded as an indication of refractive error. RESULTS: A total of 1,069 respondents, 594 female and 475 male were recruited into the study. One hundred and fifteen (115) patients (10.76%) were found to have impaired vision (Visual acuity worse than 6/18 to PL in the better eye). The vision of 51 of those with impaired vision improved when looking through the pin hole. Refractive error with Visual Acuity worse than 6/18 was present in 4.8% of all patients who attended the eye clinic. Refractive error was present in 44.3% of patients with visual impairment. CONCLUSION: Visual impairment was a common presentation and uncorrected refractive error was a major cause of visual impairment.     

Coinfection of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis and HIV Infection

SummaryCutaneous leishmaniasis has recently been discovered in some parts of Ghana. The case of an HIV infected patient presenting with cutaneous leishmaniasis at the Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital is discussed. The diagnosis of leishmaniasis was confirmed by histology. Also highlighted is the fact that this is the first reported case of dual infection of HIV and Leishmaniasis in Ghana.The possibility of rapid spread to other members of the community, both immunecompetent and immunesuppressed in view of the large numbers of organisms present in the lesion is discussed.     

The prevalence of pulmonary tuberculosis among miners from the Karonga,Rumphi, Kasungu and Lilongwe Districts of Malawi in 2019

IntroductionMiners in sub-Saharan Africa have a greater risk of tuberculosis (TB) than any other working population in the world. In spite of the presence of large and vulnerable population of miners in Malawi, no previous study has aimed to assess the burden of TB among these miners. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) and health-seeking behaviour (HSB) in a population of miners in Malawi, and a range of associated factors. Our goal was to develop a method to identify missing cases of TB.MethodsWe conducted a cross-sectional study in the Karonga, Rumphi, Kasungu and Lilongwe districts of Malawi in 2019. We calculated frequencies, proportions, odds ratios (ORs) and their 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs), and used the chi-square test in STATA version15.1 to investigate the burden and magnitude of PTB in the mining sector. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression models were also fitted for PTB and HSB.ResultsOf the 2400 miners approached, we were able to interview 2013 (84%). Of these, 1435 (71%) were males, 1438 (71%) had known HIV status and 272 (14%) had PTB. Multivariate analysis showed that the miners performing informal mining were 50% more likely to develop PTB compared with those in formal mining (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]=1.50, 95% CI: 1.10–2.05, P=0.01). A total of 459 (23% of 2013) miners had presumptive TB. Of these, 120 (26%) sought health care; 80% sought health care at health facilities. Multivariate analysis also showed that miners who experienced night sweats were less likely to seek health care compared with those without night sweats (AOR=0.52, 95% CI: 0.30–0.90, P=0.02).ConclusionThe prevalence of PTB was higher among miners than in the general population. Consequently, targeted TB screening programmes for miners may represent a suitable strategy to adopt if we are to end TB by 2030. Poor health-seeking behaviours among miners is worrisome and further qualitative research is necessary to understand the barriers to accessing health care in these settings.     

Tuberculosis in the west of Ireland 1986–1990

A review of mycobacteria isolated from clinical samples from the Western Health Board Area (WHBA) for the years 1986 to 1990 was performed to establish the pattern of mycobacterial infection. The incidence of microbiologically proven cases of tuberculosis (13.3/100,000) and of sputum smear positive cases (6.2/100,000) was determined and correlated with notification data. M. bovis accounts for 6.3% of cases of microbiologically confirmed tuberculosis in this area. Resistance to one or more of the first line anti-tuberculous drugs was noted in 5.3 % of isolates (excluding pyrazinamide resistance in M. bovis). Clinically significant isolates of mycobacteria other than tuberculosis (MOTT) were rare throughout the five year period. The overall incidence of microbiologically proven cases of tuberculosis is relatively high and M. bovis and drug resistant isolates of M. tuberculosis are relatively common.     

结核感染T细胞斑点试验在肺结核合并糖尿病患者中的诊断价值

目的 探讨结核感染T细胞斑点试验（T-SPOT.TB）在肺结核（PTB）合并糖尿病（DM）患者中的诊断价值。方法 选取2017年2月—2018年12月河北省胸科医院结核内科收治的106例DM并发可疑PTB患者,其中确诊为PTB合并DM患者62例,设为观察组;单纯DM患者44例,设为对照组。对所有受试者进行T-SPOT.TB、结核菌素（PPD）试验及痰抗酸杆菌（AFB）涂片检测,同时对比不同血糖控制情况下T-SPOT.TB检测诊断PTB合并DM的结果。结果 痰涂片AFB诊断PTB合并DM的灵敏度、特异度、阳性预测值、阴性预测值及诊断准确度分别为27.42%（17/62）、95.45%（42/44）、89.47%（17/19）、48.28%（42/87）、55.66%（59/106）,而PPD试验的诊断结果依次为56.45%（35/62）、84.09%（37/44）、83.33%（35/42）、57.81%（37/64）、67.92%（72/106）,T-SPOT.TB诊断结果则分别为95.16%（59/62）、93.18%（41/44）、95.16%（59/62）、93.18%（41/44）、94.34%（100/106）。其中T-SPOT.TB诊断的灵敏度、阴性预测值及准确度均显著高于痰涂片AFB和PPD试验（P<0.05）。血糖控制良好与控制不良者T-SPOT.TB检测诊断的灵敏度、特异度、阳性预测值、阴性预测值和准确度相比差异均无统计学意义（P>0.05）。结论 T-SPOT.TB检测在PTB合并DM的临床诊断上具有更高的灵敏度和临床应用价值。     

High incidence of tuberculosis in prison officers in Zomba,Malawi

We conducted a study in four prisons in Zomba district, Malawi, to determine the tuberculosis case notification rate in prison officers during the year 2000. Of 201 prison staff, 9 (4.5%) were diagnosed with TB: 2 with smear-positive pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB), 4 with smear-negative PTB and 3 with extrapulmonary TB (EPTB). This incidence in prison officers (9/201) was significantly greater than the incidence in primary school teachers in a separate (unpublished) study in Malawi the previous year (78/4,289) (OR 2.58,[95% CI, 2.44 – 2.73], p <0.015). Expressed as annual TB case notification rates, the data for prison officers in these 4 prisons was 4,478 per 100,000, compared to 1,786 per 100,000 in teachers. There may be a high incidence of TB in prison officers. Further research needs to be carried out in this group to confirm these findings and to develop an occupational health service to reduce the risk of TB for these workers.     

西安市2015-2018年青少年结核病患者耐药特征

目的 了解西安市青少年结核病原发性耐药和获得性耐药情况,为制定青少年群体结核病防治模式及策略提供依据。方法 收集2015—2018年在西安市胸科医院及雁塔区、长安区结核门诊进行治疗的556名34岁以下耐药结核病患者资料,分析异烟肼（H）、利福平（R）、链霉素（S）、乙胺丁醇（E）4种一线抗结核药物耐药率及青少年耐药流行病学特点。结果 农民和家政服务、家务、待业人员依然是耐药结核病高发群体,学生患病比例由5.41%上升到11.06%,干部职员的患病比例由10.81%上升到12.98%。结核病耐药患者中,青少年所占比例由2016年的63.68%降为2018年的46.01%,差异具有统计学意义（P=0.000）。青少年耐药群体中原发性结核病耐药患者比例逐渐升高,由54.05%上升到68.27%,差异具有统计学意义（P=0.019）。原发性耐药和获得性耐药中耐药比例占前3位的分别为HRS、HERS和HR,原发性和获得性耐药耐HRS比例为49.86%和49.74%,耐HERS比例分别为36.01%和37.44%,耐HR比例为9.14%和7.18%。结论 西安市2015—2018年青少年结核病耐药比例持续下降,但原发性耐药比例不断上升,达到获得性耐药2倍水平。青少年耐药类别以HRS为主,占耐药类别一半比例。     

Childhood deaths from malignant neoplasms in accra

Summary BACKGROUND: Malignant neoplasms are set to become a leading cause of childhood death in sub-Saharan Africa as immunization programmes reduce deaths due to infectious diseases. Knowledge of the pattern of deaths from these neoplasms is therefore desirable. OBJECTIVE: To describe the pattern of deaths from paediatric malignancies, compare this to morbidity figures and provide baseline data for planning child care services. METHODS: A 10 year retrospective survey of autopsy cases of paediatric malignancies at the Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital Mortuary was carried out based on autopsy files form January 1, 1990 to December 31, 1999 RESULTS: A total of 252 cases of childhood malignant tumours were retrieved, 139 males and 113 females with a male to female ratio of 1.2:1. The most common malignancy was lymphoma forming 54% of cases and almost all of Non-Hodgkin's type. Non-Burkitts type (29%) was the commonest followed by Burkitts (24%) and Hodgkin's disease only one percent. The lymphomas were followed by central nervous system (CNS) tumours (13%), nephroblastomas(10.3%) leukemias (6.7%) hepatic tumours (4%) and sarcomas (2.6%). Less common tumours were Neuroblastomas (2.4%) and retinoblastomas (2%). CONCLUSION: Overall the pattern of deaths from paediatric malignancies followed the pattern of relative incidence in morbidity figures from Ghana and the subregion except for a relatively higher proportion of deaths from CNS tumours and a lower proportion from sarcomas. The pattern of cancer deaths seen in this study is similar to that seen in advanced countries except that lymphomas replace leukemia as the commonest cause of death.     

几种常用肺结核病诊断方法临床价值的探讨

为了探讨肺结核病的诊断方法，观察了直接痰涂片查抗酸杆菌、痰结核杆菌聚合酶链反应（ＰＣＲ）检测法、结核菌素试验（ＰＰＤ试验）和血中抗分枝杆菌抗体测定对肺结核病的诊断价值。结果表明：痰涂片法诊断肺结核病的特异性达１００％，但敏感性只有２２．２％。而其他３种方法虽然敏感性稍有提高，但特异性很差。提示：目前诊断肺结核病最可靠的方法仍是痰涂片法     

"Discovery to treatment" window in patients with smear-positive pulmonary tuberculosis

Delay in commencing treatment in patients diagnosed with smear-positive pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) may promote the spread of PTB in the community. Socio-demographic and clinical data from 169 patients (119 retrospectively and 50 prospectively collected) treated for smear-positive PTB in our hospital Chest Clinic from June 2002 to February 2003 were analysed. One hundred and fifty eight (93.5%) patients were started on treatment in less than 7 days from the time when the report first became available while 11 (6.5%) patients had their treatment started > or = 7 days. The median 'discovery to treatment' window was 1 day (range, 0 to 24 days). Of the factors studied, longevity of symptoms, absence of fever or night sweats and having sought traditional medicine were associated with delay in treatment commencement. The urgency and importance of anti-TB treatment should be emphasized especially to patients who are inclined towards treatment with traditional medicine.     

Childhood tuberculosis in Malawi: caseload,diagnostic practices and treatment outcomes

There were 22,982 cases of TB registered in Malawi in 1998, of which 2739 (11.9%) were children. Children accounted for 11.3% of all case notifications with smear-positive pulmonary TB (PTB), 21.3% with smear-negative PTB and 15.9% with extrapulmonary TB (EPTB). A significantly higher proportion of TB cases were diagnosed in central hospitals. Only 45% of children completed treatment. There were high rates of death (17%), default (13%) and unknown treatment outcomes (21%). Treatment outcomes were worse in younger children and in children with smear-negative PTB. In 2001, all 44 non-private hospitals in Malawi that register and treat children with tuberculosis (TB) were surveyed to determine actual diagnostic practice. This cross sectional study identified 150 children aged 14 years or below in hospital receiving anti-TB treatment, 98 with pulmonary TB (PTB) and 52 with extrapulmonary TB (EPTB). Median duration of illness was 8 weeks. Most patients had fever, no response to anti-malarial treatment and antibiotics, and 40% had a positive family history of TB. Nearly 45% had weight for age < 60%. Diagnosis was mainly based on clinical features and radiography, with less than 10% having tuberculin skin tests or HIV serology, and very few having other sophisticated investigations. Diagnostic difficulties make it difficult to accurately define the actual burden of childhood TB in Malawi. Diagnostic practices are poor and treatment outcomes unsatisfactory.     

初治培阳肺结核患者起始耐药情况分析

目的了解肺结核患者结核分枝杆菌起始耐药情况,制定科学的防治对策。方法采用世界卫生组织制定的结核分枝杆菌耐药监测方案进行结核分枝杆菌耐药监测。使用绝对浓度法对山东省胸科医院住院的1184例培阳肺结核患者的耐药性进行测定。结果 1184例培阳肺结核患者中,全敏感834例(70.44%),耐药350例(29.56%)。其中起始耐药157例(44.86%),复治耐药193例(55.14%)。在起始耐药病例中,单耐药结核病(MonoDR-TB)53例(33.8%),其中耐链霉素的病例最多(38例,24.2%);多耐药结核病(PDR-TB)72例(45.9%);耐多药结核病(MDR-TB)20例(12.7%);广泛耐药结核病(XDR-TB)12例(7.6%);无全耐药结核病(TDR-TB)患者。结论山东省胸科医院住院肺结核患者结核分枝杆菌起始耐药现状十分严重。实现抗结核防治方案的统一管理、全程督导化疗势在必行。     

T细胞酶联免疫斑点试验及结核蛋白芯片试验对淋巴结核的诊断价值

目的 分析T细胞酶联免疫斑点试验(T-SPOT.TB)及结核蛋白芯片试验在诊断淋巴结核中价值.方法 选取安徽省胸科医院2014年1月至2017年5月确诊为淋巴结核的患者30例为研究组,选取非淋巴结核患者30例为对照组,对两组患者进行T-SPOT.TB及结核蛋白芯片试验,分析试验阳性率、敏感度及特异度.结果 研究组结核蛋白芯片试验阳性率为60.00%,T-SPOT.TB试验阳性率为90.00%,两组差异有统计学意义(P<0.05).研究组联合检测双阳性率高于对照组,对照组联合检测双阴性率高于研究组,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05).T-SPOT.TB敏感度为90.90%、特异度93.75%,结核蛋白芯片试验敏感度为71.42%、特异度83.33%.T-SPOT.TB和结核蛋白芯片敏感度差异有统计学意义(P<0.05).结论 T-SPOT.TB在淋巴结核的诊断中应用价值较高与结核蛋白芯片联合试验可以提高准确率.     

重庆市复治涂阳肺结核患者耐药分析

目的 通过了解重庆市复治涂阳肺结核患者对抗结核药物的耐药情况,为改进重庆市肺结核病的防治措施提供参考和建议。方法 收集重庆市39个区县2016年5月至2017年10月期间复治涂阳患者培养阳性的菌株,并采用对硝基苯甲酸培养法鉴定结核分枝杆菌复合群。共收集428例复治涂阳肺结核患者菌株,采用传统的比例法进行8种抗结核药物的药敏试验,并对复治涂阳肺结核患者菌株耐（多）药情况进行分析。8种抗结核药物包括：异烟肼（INH）、利福平（RFP）、链霉素（Sm）、乙胺丁醇（EMB）、氧氟沙星（Ofx）、卡那霉素（Km）,阿米卡星（Am）和卷曲霉素（Cm）。结果 纳入的428例复治肺结核患者总耐药率为45.09%,以青年组耐药率最高,达57.14%,显著高于老年组（36.59%,P=0.002<0.017),但与中年组比较差异无统计学意义（43.52% P=0.022(>)0.017）;复治肺结核患者耐多药率为27.10%,其中青年组耐多药率（41.96%）显著高于中年组（24.35%）和老年组（17.89%, P<0.05);复治肺结核患者广泛耐药率达3.74%,耐Ofx及耐任一种二线注射类抗结核药物（包括Km、Am和Cm）的比例分别为16.12%和6.31%;复治肺结核患者对4种一线抗结核药物的耐药率顺位为：利福平（33.18%）、异烟肼（32.94%）、链霉素（28.74%）、乙胺丁醇（9.11%）。复治涂阳肺结核患者耐一种抗结核药物的耐药率为10.28%,对8种抗结核药物全部耐药的比例为1.17%。复治涂阳肺结核患者耐药状况不同性别之间差异无统计学意义。结论 重庆市复治涂阳肺结核患者的耐药形势严峻,其中青年是耐多药结核病发生的危险人群,应根据本市情况制定科学合理的结核病防治方案,减少耐药结核病的产生和传播。     

Consensus statement. Global burden of tuberculosis: estimated incidence, prevalence, and mortality by country. WHO Global Surveillance and Monitoring Project.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the risk and prevalence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) infection and tuberculosis (TB) incidence, prevalence, and mortality, including disease attributable to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), for 212 countries in 1997. PARTICIPANTS: A panel of 86 TB experts and epidemiologists from more than 40 countries was chosen by the World Health Organization (WHO), with final agreement being reached between country experts and WHO staff. EVIDENCE: Incidence of TB and mortality in each country was determined by (1) case notification to the WHO, (2) annual risk of infection data from tuberculin surveys, and (3) data on prevalence of smear-positive pulmonary disease from prevalence surveys. Estimates derived from relatively poor data were strongly influenced by panel member opinion. Objective estimates were derived from high-quality data collected recently by approved procedures. CONSENSUS PROCESS: Agreement was reached by (1) participants reviewing methods and data and making provisional estimates in closed workshops held at WHO's 6 regional offices, (2) principal authors refining estimates using standard methods and all available data, and (3) country experts reviewing and adjusting these estimates and reaching final agreement with WHO staff. CONCLUSIONS: In 1997, new cases of TB totaled an estimated 7.96 million (range, 6.3 million-11.1 million), including 3.52 million (2.8 million-4.9 million) cases (44%) of infectious pulmonary disease (smear-positive), and there were 16.2 million (12.1 million-22.5 million) existing cases of disease. An estimated 1.87 million (1.4 million-2.8 million) people died of TB and the global case fatality rate was 23% but exceeded 50% in some African countries with high HIV rates. Global prevalence of MTB infection was 32% (1.86 billion people). Eighty percent of all incident TB cases were found in 22 countries, with more than half the cases occurring in 5 Southeast Asian countries. Nine of 10 countries with the highest incidence rates per capita were in Africa. Prevalence of MTB/HIV coinfection worldwide was 0.18% and 640000 incident TB cases (8%) had HIV infection. The global burden of tuberculosis remains enormous, mainly because of poor control in Southeast Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and eastern Europe, and because of high rates of M tuberculosis and HIV coinfection in some African countries.     

Recurrence of tuberculosis at a Sydney chest clinic between 1994 and 2006: reactivation or reinfection?

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the incidence of recurrence of culture-positive tuberculosis (TB) and the relative contributions of reinfection and reactivation (based on DNA fingerprinting). DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Retrospective analysis of all culture-positive TB notifications between 1994 and 2006 from Liverpool Chest Clinic in the south-west of Sydney. Patients with more than one notification of culture-positive TB during this period were identified. Genotyping of Mycobacterium tuberculosis was used to determine whether recurrence was due to reinfection or reactivation. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Estimation of the incidence of recurrence of culture-positive TB (cases per 100 000 person-years of follow-up), and the proportions of reinfection and reactivation. RESULTS: Three cases of recurrent culture-positive disease were identified (incidence of recurrence: 57.7 per 100 000 person-years of follow-up). All three patients were treated with directly observed therapy. Two of these patients had evidence of reinfection with different strains; both were natives of a country with a high incidence of TB and had returned to that country after the initial episode. The other patient had evidence of reactivation of the initial strain, indicating secondary failure of treatment. This patient had poor adherence to treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Our observations suggest there is a very low rate of reactivation of tuberculosis. The low incidence of recurrence due to reinfection reflects the low incidence of tuberculosis in Australia. When reinfection does occur, this probably has been sustained during residence in a country with a high incidence of tuberculosis.     

A Retrospective Study of Culture-confirmed Mycobacterial Infection among Hospitalized HIV-infected Patients in Beijing,China

A retrospective analysis was performed in two major HIV/AIDS referral hospitals in Beijing to evaluate the prevalence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) and non-tuberculous mycobacterial (NTM) infections in HIV-infected patients. A total of 627 patients' data were reviewed, and 102 (16.3%) patients were diagnosed with culture-confirmed mycobacterial infection, including 84 with MTB, 16 with NTM, and 2 with both MTB and NTM. The most frequent clinical complication by mycobacterial infection was pulmonary infection (48/102, 47.1%). The overall rates of multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) and extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB) were 11.9% and 3.4%, respectively. This study underlines the urgent need to intensify screening for mycobacteria coinfection with HIV and to prevent the spread of drug-resistant TB among HIV-infected patients.